Aboriginal tribes of India and Pakistan : the Bhils & Kolhis

PAKISTAN

E BHILS & THE KOLHiS

by
HAWABAI MUSTAFA SHAH

Introduction by
Dr. G.M. Mehkri Ph.D.

The original of tliis book is in
tine Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924075257943

3 1924 075 257

943

ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF
INDIA AND PAKISTAN

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Published by Mazhar Yusuf
for and on behalf of
Sindhi Kitab Char

Printed at

Mashhoor Offset Press, Karachi.

ABORIGINAL TRIBES

OF INDIA AND

PAKISTAN

THE BHILS & KOLHIS

by
HAWABAI MUSTAFA SHAH

Introduction

by

Dr. G.M. Mehkri Ph.D.

SINDHI KITAB GHAR
KARACHI

CONTENTS

Preface
by Sayid Ghulam Mustafa Shah

7

Introduction

by Dr. G.M. Mehkri

9

The Aboriginal Tribes of India and Pakistan

The Bhils and the Kolhis

Ancestry, History, Occupation

& General Characteristics

17

Family Festivals

25

Religion and Outer Life
32

Folk Thoughts
41

Social Life
50

Cosmology
54

Who is to be Blamed?
62

Customs and Manners
72

Cultural Identity
81

Folk Lore and Folk Songs "
87

PREFACE

I could never realize how difficult it is to write encomium about a
wife one loved so intensely and who reciprocated in such a large meas-
ure, her love and devotion. HAWA had all the great attributes of head
and heart that a woman can be proud of and for a husband to admire. We
had a great deal of exchange of views and debated, but still thought so
much alike. Her intellectual capacity, administrative efficiency and
literary excellence, I always admired. She helped me in selecting articles
and quotations for Sind Quarterly exactly I would want. Our minds al-
ways met whether we differed seriously or not. Our logomachy always
ended in smiling or in laughter. Her asthma, which she contacted when
she was in England, began to bother her for a long time, when suddenly
it became cardiac; and within twelve hours of this attack she died and
left me for good.

She was not only a great teacher but also a consummate education-
al administrator. She was a marvellous combination of strength and
kindness. She had taught for nearly thirtyfive years of her life, and gave
the best of her efforts and endeavours to the profession of teaching. The
great endearment she earned in her college life among both her col-
leagues and'her students, is a tribute to her. She is remembered with af-
fection even today.

This is a work which was sent to me after her death, by her dear
friend and class-mate, Miss Venita Vanchoo from Allahabad. This is a
thesis presented to the University for her Master's degree in anthropolo-
gy after studying and observing the details of the life, habits and tradi-
tions of the Kolhis and the Bhils among whom she lived — a brave
thing to do for a muslim girl in 1942-43. One can only admire her
simplicity and accuracy of writing. This is a real original work of
research and scholarship published nearly nine years after her death. May
her soul rest in peace.

After a married life of twenty two years she has left a tremendous
void in my life, and with indelible memories of happiness. Literally it
was my good fortune to have married her.

SAYID GHULAM MUSTAFA SHAH

INTRODUCTION

The untimely death of Prof. Mrs. H.B. Mustafa Shah has
robbed us of the benefits of a lady anthropologist (already so
very few in number) who. not content with the knowledge of
anthropology gained from college text-books, had herself
embarked on field research tn the subject eind has left behind
a book on the Bhils and the Kolhls (aboriginal tribes of India)
which would be a credit to any anthropologist of repute.

Not many, even amongst the better educated amongst
us, seem to care to know the Importance of anthropology.

Somehow it is thought to be somewhat of a 'remote
subject', dealing mostly with 'primitives* and 'aboriginals' far
removed from 'our' 'modem' 'civilization' and 'culture*.

That is not at all so.
This Is the Age Of Science.

This is the Age of Observation, of E^xperlment and of
Reason.

There is just no known limit to these three processes, now
tremendously at work all the progressive world over, with
breakneck speed, and In all branches of human interest and
knowledge.

Anthropology Is one such branch.

The Oxford Dictionary defines Anthropology as 'Whole
science of man, human physiology and psychology; study of
man as an animal". "An animal" true: but not a mere biped; the
animal who builds whole artificial worlds from the Natural
resources he finds around and, now, creates things not found
in nature also.

He is the most lasclnatlng of all 'animals*. The anthro-
pologist falls a prey to this unending fascination.

So he begins his unending study of Man as an Animal

10

with the study of the humans who can be said to be living more
near natural surroundings than those who live in far more
complex artificlcil surroundings like towns and cities.

He tries to study Man's origins, his mental work with his
physical equipment, the origins of customs and manners and
all other social continuities.

So, in search of these origins, he studies the 'Primitives'.

Primitives means 'PRIME' people, not Secondaries that
the rest of us happen to be. So, the term 'Primitives' is not to
be used as a condescending term; but as the acknowledgement
that without the "primitives" we would not have been there at
all. Our debt of gratitude to them can never be repayable.

They are our ancestors in the most demonstrable sense
of the term. It is they who have laid the foundations and. in
many instances, the very superstructure of civilizations and
culture; of language and thought and other Primary INVEN-
TIONS.

Those whom we may. in our haughtiness and forgetful-
ness. derisively call Primitives are the people who have been
historically outstripped, mostly through Force and Fraud by
such of us. from amongst them, who through historical acci-
dents, coincedents, and clean breakthrough of creativity and
social and militant insight, subdued the rest and have reduced
them to political, social, cultural and economic helplessness
and dispossession of their habitats and have left them utterly
at our own pitiless mercy and heartless exploitation, not only
of their bodies but. worse, eilso of their very minds and spirit.

The present day Bhlls and Kolhls. to be found in many
parts of this subcontinent, are amongst such a cowed-down,
brow beaten and dispossessed people.

Perhaps no Humanist in the world can study the fate of
the Red Indians, the Negros, the Eskimos, the Australians, the
Movarles and Bhlls and Kolhls without help-less compassion
on seeing how "man eats man" in the name of civilization and
culture.

11

Mrs. H.B. Mustafa Shah Is obviously one such Human-
ist who embarked upon the study and field research In
anthropology of the Bhlls and Kolhls, with a human heart.

And what a work of Art itself is her study of these people!
Not at all content with the usual prescribed format of students'
field work for thesis requirements in the Universities, she has,
as can be seen from the study of this book, gone deeper into the
humanistic values 'of the purest ray serene* she found in her
study of the culture of the Bhils and the Kolhis.

Ponder on one of her statements: "In the eyes of the Bhll
the speeiking of untruth is one of the most despicable of crimes.
Whatever happens, the Bhil will always give a most correct
description even when it is detrimental to himself. Even in case
of homicide he has puzzled the courts of law and Justice. The
uneducated Bhil always confesses without restraint and his
strong urge to speak the truth is by no means diminished by
the knowledge that punishment may be hard".

When she points out that the uneducated Bhll speaks the
truth Irrespective of consequences she shows us how great he
is. She echoes the statement of Robert Bums that 'an honest
man, though ever so poor, is king of man for all that'.

And then see for yourself what happens to the 'civilised'
Bhil: The slightly polished Bhll," she says, "behaves differ-
ently. He uses his Insufficient knowledge in such a way that
any commitment of his appears distorted in his favour; he
hides and conceals the truth with the express aim of sparing
himself from punishment". Then she points out that because
of this corruption of the very soul of man that 'civilization'
causes, the aboriginal concerned with the chastity of his soul
"condemns any sort of education, ftmily believing that the
ability to read and write undermines traditions and customs
and it is not astonishing that he eyes with disfavour the
Influence exercised by town".

How many of us can say that,?

And "The uneducated Bhll Is always fond of his wife" she
says... 'To desert a wife, is, according to Bhll tradition, an

12

unpardonable act".

Call THEM uncivilised?

Then Mrs. H. B. Mustafa Shah shows how. not content
with having dispossessed the aboriginals of their lands jthe civ-
ilised man from towns and cities, is relentlessly bent upon
further exploiting them since ages on end.

The "Bhagat" or the priest from the towns and cities
extracts religious tributes. And the money lender enslaves
these people without aity pity or mercy. "Despite the fact that
the Bhlls are so jealous of their personal freedom, they never
attempted to counteract the Bhagat's endeavour to render the
Bhll slaves of his influence... The Bhagat is the intermedlaiy
between the gods and the Bhils. and superstitious to the high-
est degree, no Bhil dares to contradict". And yet, "No body has
already been more attacked than the Bhagat",! his prestige,
however, remains unshaken thanks to his own cleverness".

The book is. thus, replete, not only with pure academic
objectives and above all, verifiable findings and observations,
but also with that humanistic insight that makes it eminently
readable for the general public also.

It is a spectrum of the life and living of the BhUs and the
Kolhls. And what a social spectroscopic study of the Bhlls cind
Kolhis life she has made, even as a student then!

The nine chapters of her study contain within themselves
most easily and most interestingly stated, and above all, most
humanistically written aspects of the Bhlls and Kolhls life, be-
ginning with

a) Ancestory, history, occupation and general characterls-
~ tics

b) Death and burial customs

c) Folk thoughts

d) Cosmology

e) Religion

f) Social life

g) Customs and manners
h) Cultural identity

1) Folk lore and folk songs

13

Throughout this book one sees that the life of the Bhils
and the Kolhls Is not at all Isolated, Insplte of the struggle for
cultural identity. The more complex cultures around are
relentlessly exerting their pressures.

Mrs. Shah is not at all blind to such of the features In the
life of the Bhils that have remained unhelpful to them. She is
critical and awake.

One of such, as she points out, is their excessive fondness
for alcohol. Also, after all is said and done, at least In some
respects she finds them to be less mature than, say, the Gonds
and some other tribes in the subcontinent.

Going "beyond the bounds of duty", as only a strict
matter-of-fact anthropologist, and wielding the cudgel of hu-
manism and ethics, Mrs. Shah has come to the defence of the
politically, socially, culturally, economically bulldozed Bhils
and Kolhis and also other tribes in no uncertain terms.

Who else, at least from amongst us, but she can in their
defence so forcefully plead with elegance and empathy, in these
unforgettable words.

'Aborigines and their primtive culture acquired, theinks
to distorted reports of explorers, who usually culminate their
investigations by releasing a flood of minimising and prejudi-
cial literature on the subject, acquired the reputation of form-
ing the elements of the lowest possible strata of human
advance and this state of affairs became an ill-used criterion
applied by mankind who. only too eagre to cover Its own
shortcomings, loves to draw attention to those inhabitants of
the earth less advanced (or should one; say less shrewd) than
itself.

Contempt and the cherished manner of looking down on
less fortunate fellow-creatures resulted consequently in harm-
ful misunderstanding which could so far not be drowned by the
voice of a very limited number of interested and understanding
investigators. E^ven the school books are packed with wrong
and entirely misleading descriptions of the life, modes of living
and cultural manifestations of aborigines and it is hardly as-
tonishing that this type of knowledge-once established in the

14

receptive mind of a young brain tends to remain fixed. The mere
mention of the word "Junglewallah" provokes a shudder, pro-
jecting phantastlc scenes of naked tribesmen hunting In
hostile virgin-forests, notions of squalor and filth, primitive life
In caves and blood thirsty feasts on unspeakable repulsive
kinds of food.

The press, magazines and films further corrupt the
minds of children and adults by presenting the aborigines In a
manner irresponsible and positively prejudicial, exploiting by
this means man's utterly regrettable Inclinations to see and to
hear something about halr-ralslng habits of some Isolated and
neglected tribe. The impression Is created that one should be
very glad to belong to a more cultured circle, apart from a
deliberately fostered tendency to keep aloof from those wretched
creatures the sight of which is already enough to drive anybody
to fits. Did not every one of us read thrilling stories of aborigi-
nes who roast their slain opponents ?

Certainly cannibalism did exist though It has long been
proved that caimlballsm was based on a carnal lust and
cruelty, but nobody felt prevented to believe that this kind of
barbaric lack of consideration that contributed so much to the
rather doubtful reputation of aborgines is nothing else than a
ritualistic manifestation of a certain type of culture excellent In
the eyes of the adherents, but not too pleasing in the eyes of the
civilised world.

Besides, the city-dweller whose whole outlook, on life is
exclusively centred on appearances, make-ups, aping of supe-
riors, fashions and super-smart chit-chat on world-reforms,
brotherhood and mutual understanding etc. feels Instinctively
repulsed when he is compelled to contact a stray-member of an
aboriginal tribe.

The Junglewallah Is usually the exponent of poverty and.
shabbiness, his simple maimers do not make him eligible to
membership of dandy clubs. In addition, the tribesman unwill-
ingly contributes to the maintenance of wrong ideas as to
himself. This shy and helpless behaviour, his embarrassment
apparently stress that he merely belongs to the skum of
mankind.

15

This Impression Is Indeed quite wrong; some junglewal-
lahs may be rascals, the majority, however, mcorporated Into
the simple but pure culture of their tribes, though less civilised
as they may be, positively represents a most valuable type of
man.'

A culture sparkling with life, simplicity, honesty and
void of hypocrisy. These assets alone are worthy of any effort.
Present day's life has become so cramped Em affair, compli-
cated In all Its details, dominated by greed, falsehood and
hypocrisy, boredom and lack of sincerity that It is Imperative
to question the usefulness of so wretched a force which our
lives have happened to become through our own fault.

Should we not listen to the song of aborigines peacefully
relaxing In the shade of a mohur tree?

A song so free from wordly haste, so rich in sound,
saturated with a melodious narrative oi love, frank longing,
fulfilment and happiness.

This Is the language we should learn to understand and
once understood, we will cease to be slaves of our own life and
our self-created Institutions.

Let alone the many other virtues of this book; If Mrs.
Shah, as a student and teacher of anthropology over here had
done nothing else than to have expressed her defence of the es-
sential greatness and essential humanness of the maligned,
scorned, exploited and culturally and splritueilly brow-beaten
aborigines who had done others no known wrong, even then,
she deserves a nitche In the temple of humanism. But she has
done much more. She has tried to touch the strings of Justice
and mercy In the lyre of our heart with the fingers of scientific
mvestlgatlon of the problem of human beings, the Bhils and
KohUs.

She Is no more with us. But she remains our Margret
Mead.

Dr. G.M. Mehkri

17

THE ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF INDIA

AND PAKISTAN

THE BHILS AND THE KOHLIS

PROFESSOR (MRS.) H.B. MUSTAFA SHAH.

Ancestry, History, Occupation, General Characteristics.

The Bhils belong to the so-called aboriginals of India. This is
practically all that isknown about their ancestry. There was a time
when they were regarded as Dravidians, closely related to the
Gonds. But this opinion has been discarded. The physiognomy and
the nature ofthe Bhils and those of the Dravidians differ too much
to allow us to place them in the same racial fold. The Bhils are more
primitive, more original, simply children of nature. In this respect
they differ considerably even from the least developed of the
Dravidians, namely the Gonds, which are their neighbours.

It is noteworthy that the Bhils'also, from a linguistic point of
view, differ widely from the Dravidians, theit language being of
Aryan origin.

Another theory has been advanced, namely that the Bhils
are a Munda people, that is to say, they are closely related to the
so-called Kols and Santals in Bengal, Bihar and Assam. This
theory is more probable. The one who has had an opportunity to see
and associate with these people cannot fail to observe a certain
similarity between them and the Bhils. Here is the same primitive
nature, and partly at least, the same physiognomy. But this does
not settle the question, however, we are not yet in a position to
make a positive and definite statement in this respect. The lan-
guage may or may not be a guiding star. If, however, due regard is
paid to the language it will lead us in another direction. The Munda
and the Bhil dialects have very little or no organic relations. Nor
does history provide us with a solution of the problem.

The question of the origin of the Bhils is thus still left
unsettled. All that we can say is that they seem to belong to the
aboriginals which do not seem to be so very closely related to the
Dravidians. They are probably still older, pre-Dravidians.

Many attempts have been made to discover from the name
of the tribe, their original status and cultural conditions if not their
racial origin at the time of the Aryan invasion of their country.

18

Different theories have been advanced. Bhil is thus said to have
been derived from the Dravidian wordTbilla', a bow. In that case the
name would mean a bowman. This derivation is, however, not very
hkely. It is true that the Bhils are skilful archers, and were more
so in days gone by, but other Indian aborigines have not been
inferior to them when it comes to this skill. Thus there is no reason
why they should just be called bowmen above all others. Others
have derived the word Bhil from the Sanskrit word "billa', mean-
ing, hole, cave, etc. Should this derivation be right, the Bhil would
originally have been a cave dweller. I think this conjecture, too, is
wrong.

A third theory is more plausible. According to this, the word
Bhil is derived from the Sanskrit word 'abhira', a cowherd. Via
Prakrit, bhilla, the word has arrived at its present form, bhil. One
does not require much linguistic experience to realize the possibil-
ity of a word undergoing changes in this way. In Hindi and other
North Indian languages, a cowherd is still called ahir. In Cutch
there lives a comparatively large group of ahirs, whose mother
tongue is so closely related to the Bhili dialects that is Grierson's
Linguistic survey they have been treated as one of them. And
further: in Khandesh there is a Bhili dialect called Airani, which
is the same as ahirani, i.e. the language of the ahirs or cowherds.

At the stage of our present knowledge there are reasons to
interpret the word Bhil as a cowherd. Thus the Bhils may be
supposed to have been cowherds originally, i.e. at the time of the
Aryan invasion. If this interpretation is right, the Bhils must have
reached a fairly high standard of civilization at that time.

In the annals of history the Bhils figure very rarely. It is,
however, believed that they can be traced as far back as 2000 years
ago, if not further. The great Alexandrinian geographer, Klauditos
Ptlomaios, who flourished in the beginning and middle of the
second century mentions an Indian people called Phyllitas. There
is reason to believe that this refers to the Bhils, who then, more
than now, had their abode on the west coast.

In Mahabharata, the longest epic the world has ever seen
and written about 200 B.C. the Bhils are referred to under the
name of Pulinda as participants in the great war described in the
epic. Valmiki's Ramayana which is believed to have been composed
about 500 B.C. is also aquainted with the Bhils. They fought in
Rama's army against Rawan, the despotic demon from lanka
(Ceylon), And Rama the seventh avatar of vishnu, is said to have
eaten berries from the hand of a Bhil woman, Sabari. If, as is
generally supposed, Rama should have lived and reigned about

19

1600 B.C., the Bhils must have been a peopleknpwn in India since
the time of Moses' appearance in Egypt. Besides these two epics,
other holy books of the Hindus, e.g. Panch Tantra mention the
Bhils.

When we draw closer to modern times we find the Bhils
mentioned more frequently on the pages of history. During the
long wars waged by the Muhammedan kings and their rule over
India the Bhils play a rather important role. AboutlOOO A.D. they
were in possession of large tracts of Gujerath and Central India. By
and by they were, however, expelled from their ancestral land both
by the Muslims and the Rajputs and their land was occupied. But
this did not take place without bloody fighting. And the Bhils were
never completely subdued. In the unapproachable backwoods they
continued to live an independent life.

By the Moghul rulers they are praised as a diligent and
lawabiding people. And previous to that time, in the eleventh
century, their villages are held up as models, where industrious-
ness and cleanliness are prevailing, law being administered, and
discipline strictly applied.

In mythology the Bhil woman is glorified as being plucky,
pretty and chaste. Thus, for instance, when Pravati wanted to
charm Mahadev in order to make him forgo his ascetic lif?, she
adopted the shape of a bhildi (bhil woman). Most wonderful of all
that tradition has to tell is that Valmiki, the great author of
Ramayana, was a Bhil. This goes to prove that the Bhils, thousand
of years ago, occupied a prominent place among the various
peoples of India, and that their culture at that time had reached a
high standard.

From the Marathas, which entered the scene in the begin-
ning of the 17th century and for a couple of centuries fought with
the Moghuls and the British for the supremacy of areas inhabited
by the Bhils, the latter ones did not get any praise. No mercy was
.shown to them. No people seems to have been treated more
severely by them. Even taken into account that the descriptions
given by the English historians of the atrocities of the Marathas
are considerably coloured, enough remains to prove that their
treatment of the Bhils was unusually severe and cruel. If, for
example, a man was captured in a riotous area and it was proved
that he was Bhil, this was regarded as reason enough to fleece and
hang him without trial or else his nose and ears were cut off and
he was burnt to death iti a red-hot iron chair or on a heated cannon.
Every year hundreds of Bhils were hurled down the high precipice
of Antur to perish in the deep abyss. On one occasion three large

20

groups of Bhils with a letter of safe conducthad assembled in three
towns in Khandesh in order to receive pardon, as had been
solemnly promised, for an uproarios attempt. They were however
killed, beheaded, or shot; their women were mutilated or smoked
to death, while their children were dashed against stones or rocks.

If the Bhils had already started to degenerate socially,
culturally, politically and intellectually, the pace was now acceler-
ated. It was during these hard days that they underwent the last
stage of their development which brought them to the point of
degeneration, which they have occupied all since.

When in 1818 the British took over the Bhil country, the
Bhils, by the sad play of fate, had developed into the most cunny,
skilful but suspicious and unmanageable guerilla fighters, high-
way men, and freebooters. It took a long time, much patience and
wisdom to paciiy the country and win the confidence of the Bhils.
But at last this end was achieved. And during the last half of a
century the Bhils have lived a very peaceful and quiet life. Only a
few years ago they were however counted among the criminal
tribes, who were registered with^the police and had to report at
fixed intervals. This system is still in vogue in several districts,
although it is rare in West Khandesh.

Today the Bhil is as a rule a harmless being.If not provoked
or unfairly treated, he will harm nobody. But much is not required
to conjure up the old nature, innate during many generations.
Then he may change into the most formidable revenger or the most
cunning and merciless culprit. Several instances of that kind are
encountered now and then. The leader of a gang of robbers
operating in and around Bhilwada is more often than not a Bhil.
And in Akrani, where there is a compact population of Bhils, and
where the Swedish Alliance Mission has a station, Mandulwar,
murders are so common that Mr. Rowland, a Welshman, who
served in our Mission for some years, had reason to describe that
area as the most criminal within the British Empire. Approxi-
mately one in a thousand is murdered there every year.

The average standard of the Bhils, socially as well as eco-
nomically, is very low. The majority lives from hand to mouth. In
the areas where they form a small minority of the population, they
have been degraded into the servants or coolies of other people,
living from day to day on what little they can earn, gathering fire-
wood in the jungle which they carry on their heads to villages and
towns where it is sold, and so on.

In places where they form a majority and a friendly govern-
ment rules, they are farmers. In most cases they cultivate their

21

land in a poor way. But there are also honourable exceptions. Per-
sonally I know Bhil farmers who are large landowners having
hundreds of acres of land, which is being cultivated just as
nationally as anybody else's in India.

Besides farming, the Bhil occupies himself with cutting,
rough-hewing and transport of timber. With other occupation or
crafts he is rarely acquainted. In every Bhil section of farmers,
though, there are one or two carpenters who produce what simple
farming implements are required. The smithwork is generally
done by artisans belonging to other tribes or castes.

Hunting and fishing, especially the last-mentioned, are
occupations that are cherished by the Bhils. As a result hereof the
rivers in the Bhil country are almost devoid offish. Whole villages
go a fishing to a man, not to say to a woman. Dams are built to shut
in the fish. Then it is caught in hoop-nets, bucks, pots, and nets, or
with the hands. Not even the smallest can get away. It is an ex-
tremely picturesque and interesting thing to see the whole male
and female population of a village wade through a river catching
fish.

Hunting will soon belongto the pleasures and occupations of
the past. Game is continually on the decrease. And the Bhil is not
allowed to carry the arms he wants; not even a large bow with iron
arrows, let alone swords or spears or daggers or lances, and guns
or rifles. But it may happen that even a panther is laid down before
the insistent attacks by a group of Bhils, armed with bamboos only.
But it may also happen that one or more Bhils have to pay with
their lives for a reckless chase on wild boar. Rabbits, antilopes,
gazelles and even deer and blue- bulls may be killed with bamboo
lathis afl;er having been tired out by a wild chase. During his
hunting excursions the Bhil is possessed with a fury.

Of one occupation the Bhil is aborn master, viz: the distilling
of liquor. Here nobody can compete with him. And the women are
just as skilled as the men. As the Government authorities both in
British India as well as in the Native states have monopoly of
producing liquor, the whole traffic has to be carried on secretly.
And in this art too the Bhil is a master. Few persons, whatever
people they belong to, have such a pronounced ingenious skill of
completely concealing what they want to conceal as the Bhil in
general enjoys.

Speaking of occupations and crafts it should be mentioned
that the Bhil builds his own house. Most Bhil dwellings are grass
or straw huts. In jungles tracts, where bamboo is plentiful, the
walls are made of split bamboos. The roof is thatched its straw.

22

leaves, curry stalks or something of the kind. The walls are often
made of bulrushes, maize stalks, etc. Nowadays Bhil dwellings are
often found roofed with tiles, which, however, are not made by
themselves. Of late quite a number of the farmer Bhils on the plain
have erected for themselves big brick-houses with roofs of corru-
gated iron.

The Bhil is of a playful disposition, being jocular and of a
comparatively lively imagination. He is in no way ungift«d. On the
contrary, the Bhils are probably more gifted than most of the
aborigines of India. Their gift for languages is marked. It is no
uncommon thing to come across Bhils who speak three or four
languages fluently. In the primary schools they do just as well, if
not better, than the children of other people. When it comes to
higher studies they do not do so well.

Generally speaking they are children. They are therefore not
to be depended upon. It is easy to extract promises from them. But
if you expect these to be fulfilled you will often be deceived. Like
children they forget what they have promised. Their manners are
pleasant, courteous and obliging. Among the inhabitants of Khan-
desh they are, in the opinion of many, the mostgentleman like. And
so one easily learns to like them. To get into real touch with them
is not easy, though. Their degration and ignorance are great. Only
four men in a thousand are literate. Among the women hardly one
in ten thousand. Drunkenness knows no restraint. Men, women
and children learn from childhood to use intoxicating liquor.

By Hindus, Mohammadans, and other confessors of indige-
nous, religions, they are looked upon with contempt, oppressed
and trampled down. But they are not regarded as untouchables.
Even a Brahman may take water from the hands of a Bhil. Some
of them claim to be Kshatriyas, i.e. the second of the Indian castes,
the warrior caste.

Going into debt is so common that it is practically impos-
sible to come across a Bhil without debts. It almost seems as if
contracting debts is looked upon as a necessity of life. When a
Christian Bhil once approached me in order to borrow money
from me, his strongest argument was that he had no debt
before! The money-lenders therefore have a happy hunting
ground among the Bhils. The lowest interest charged is 75%.
Cases where the interest has amounted to 75% per month are
not lacking. The most common rate seems to be 25% a month.
More need not be said to explain the severity of the situation.
But the worst part of the tale is not yet told, for according to
Indian custom, debts are passed on from one generation to

23

another, endlessly. The debt may thus become of 100 years
standing and simply unpayable. The Bhil becomes the slave of
the usurer, practically if not nominally.

During the period of degradation the Bhil has degener-
ated even physically. He is dwarfed in some way. Oppression
has stamped his features. Under the surface, however, a
glimpse may be seen of a noble strain, something that tells you
of a noble inheritance, of a happier past. And in this something
lies the hope of development into something better and higher,
under the influence of the Gospel of Jesus Christ

Tribal, divisions, dispersions, and numbers.

The Bhils are not a homogeneous people. Far from that!
Few people are so divided into clans, tribes and families as are
the Bhils. The full number of these have never been known.
Some fifty are, however, known. And these are scattered over
a tremendous area. We find them fi-om the 18th to the 28th
latitude and from the 72nd to the 77th longitude, approxi-
mately the area of the size of Sweden.

A glance at the map will show that the Bhils, politically
are divided between the Native States of Central India and
Rajputana, Baroda, and other Native States of Gujarat, Brit-
ish Gujarat, Khandesh, Nasik, Ahmednagar, Poona and other
districts of Maharashtra, and Hyderabad Deccan. Kachh and
Thar Desert and border areas of Sind and Bahawalpur. In
West Khandesh we find the densest and broadest Bhil block.
Experience has also shown that the Bhils that are most gifted
and capable of development are to be found here. For all
practical purposes these are the Dehvali-speaking: They must
however share this honour to some extent, with those who
have Mowchi as their language, a dialect (;losely related to
Dehvali.

The most prominent tribes or families within these areas
are Padvi, Vasava, Valvi, Pardan Naik, and Gavti. Originally
these nameshave stood for professions: Padvi:- rulers, officials
and officers; Vasava:- bailiffs and higher village officials;
Valvi:- councillors; and Gavti:- cultivators. The only Bhil
princes still in existence belong to the Dehvali group. The only
Bhils, so outstanding as to have become Government officials
also belong to the same category. Quite recently three of their
number were appointed as honorary magistrates at their
respective places. Other Bhil tribes in Khandesh are: Nojri,
Nihali, Pavri, Naikulli, Kajli, Kotli, Bardi, Ajrani, Kokni,
Kotri, Dubli, and others.

24

These tribes often differ considerably as to intellectual
gifts, disposition and character, social status, manners and
customs and languages. The Pavri people do not even regard
themselves as Bhils, boasting that they are Rajputs. It is
possible that they have "royal" blood in their veins. Their
posture and skin bespeak this. The Kokni people have been
Hindunized and Marathaized to such an extent as to regard
themselves too distinguished to be ranked among the Bhils.
The Kators may not be pure Bhils. Their standard is lower
than that of the Kandesh Bhils in general, and they form an
inconsiderable minority in Khandesh. The Kotlis are on the
whole are of a weaker character than the rest, they are also
less industrious and therefore the poorest among the bigger
tribes. They are of low morals. Hundred of their women are to
be found as second or third wives or concubines with Moham-
madans. From their ranks the army of prostitutes is being fed.
Prostitution is otherwise an unknown institution among the
Bhils. The Kotlis live around Nandurbar. The hill tribes i.e.
Pavri, Nihali, Nojri, and some of the Valvi have the peculiari-
ties of the hill people in a very marked way.

The Dehvali people live in the western part of Nandur-
bar Taluka (round Dhanora) and Taloda Taluka and in the
Mewa States, which are ruled by Bhil princes. In Shahada we
have the Bardi and Kajli people, which belong to the best type
of Bhils. In Sindkheda there are Bardis and Airanis. In
Shirpur and Dhulia we find Airanis. The latter ones have been
highly enslaved by the people they live among, and more so by
liqour.

The total number of Bhils in West Khandesh, including
theMewaStates, was accordingto the Census of 1921, 233,944.
Since then they have without doubt increased. They number
38% of the total population of the district. Their dispersion is
very uneven. The percentage for the different Talukas is as
follows: Dhulia city 3%, Dhulia Taluka 12%, Sindkheda 12%,
Shirpur 12%, Shahada 37%, Nandurbar 44%, Taloda 76%,
Sakri 36%, and Navapur 86%.

Accordingto the Census 1921 the total population of the
Bhils in India is 1,795,508. This figure is probably too low. In
the linguistic Survey Report published in 1907, the Bhili
speaking people were estimated at 2,689, 109. It maybe safe to
assume that the Bhils number at least 2,000,000. That the
returns differ is accounted for by the fact that some strongly
Hindunized tribes deny their BhiloriHn. In anv case one sixth

25

of the Bhils live in Khandesh.

Compared to other aborigines it will be found that the
Bhils occupy the third place as far as numbers are concerned.
.For the Gonds number 2,902,592 and the santals 2,265,282. In
importance however they do not lagbehind these larger groups
of aborigines.

The Family Festivals

ABhil who ishimselfa married man and afather relates
as follows concerning an occasion of this kind:

When symptoms appear that the days of the prospective
mother are up the women of the neighbourhood are called in
together with the midwife. The latter delivers her. When the
child has been born, a hole is dug in one corner of the house for
its bath. Close to this hole another one is dug where the
placenta is thrown, whereafter the hole is filled with earth,
which is packed. On the top of this cowdung is plastered.

The child which uptil now has undergone only a meagre
drycleaning with a rag or a piece of cloth , is now laid by the mid-
wife on a piece of board which is placed over the first hole,
where it is thoroughly washed together with its mother, who
also has been placed on the board. Duties thus performed the
mid-wife gets a few champas of grain from the house and
leaves the house.

The mother thenhas to do the bathingboth of herself and
the child. This is done twice a day over the above-mentioned
hole. Her food consists of water-gruel, which is served every
three hours by a woman temporarily employed. After a lapse
of five days the father of the child goes to the liquor shop from
where he brings a few, generally six bottles of liquor. Arrived
home he sends for the mid-wife again and the elder woman of
the neighbourhood, who will be there very quickly.

The first duty of the mid-wife will now be to perform
"penchro punji" (the worship of the fifth day), to the honour of
which deity this is done, remains her secret as a rule.

The worship having been performed, she fills up with
earth the hole over which the child and her mother have been
bathed. After havingbeen packed it is plastered with cowdung,
on which she draws a design of red lead and paint. Finally she
sprinkles a little liquor on the top of the whole thing. Of the
liquor the midwife takes a bottle with her home. What is left
is divided between the women that have come and squatted
down on the floor. They all help themselves Hberally to it.

26
Naming the child

The time has now come to give the child a name. The
midwife gets up, takes a piece of cloth which she gives to two
women to fold so as to malce a swing or cradle of it in the form
of a hammock, in which the child is placed. The midwife stands
in the middle swinging the hammock while singing.

Should anyone try to scare thee, be not afraid!

Should any one try to decieve thee, be not decieved!

Then she stops the hammock, takes up the child and
hands it to its mother. All the women now combine to give the
child a name.

The name given is so chosen as to refer to the day on
which the child was bom or to some characteristic features of
child. Thus for example, it may be called Navapuria to denote
that it was born on a Saturday: Kalia, the black one, because
of its complexion, or Raltia, the crying one, because it cried
vehemently on entering this world and so on. Names of ani-
mals, such as, dog and tiger, cat, rat, bullock are rather
common; and so are goblin, fairy and others of that kind. An
ugly name will protect the bearer against evil spirits.

When this ceremony is over, the midwife is presented
with two champas of grain, one bottle of liquor and one Rupee
in cash for her services. Then she leaves the family. The other
women who have squatted down also leave for their homes.

After this ceremony, the confined woman, who, however,
now is up and around, is considered unclean (napak, unholy)
for another month and a quarter, i.e. 35 days. During this
period no one may touch her, let alone, eat anything she has
puther hand to or dine together with her. Her meals are served
to her in a special comer.

When the five weeks prescribed have elapsed, the whole
family dines together again, all "eat from her hand", that is to
say, what she has cooked and is now serving. In other words,
she reoccupies her position as wife and mother.

Marriage

Marriage in the Bhil country is a very complicated affair.
Firstly, like many primitive people, the Bhils are exogamous.
that is to say, they never marry \vithin their own tribe. To do
so would be regarded as incest, and the one guilty of it, would
be excommunicated from his family and tribe. Secondly, it I's

27

not the young manTiimself thatis incharge of the negotiations
in connection with the proposal. It is the mother, father and
brothers. Thirdly, it is expensive to secure a bride. If thus the
parents and the brothers (including cousins) do not approve of
an early marriage or money should be lacking, the marriage-
able young man may have to waitfor a longtime with an aching
heart, before the achieves his heart's desire.

Formerly the price of a bride was low. Fifty years ago it
was fixed at Rs. 50/- or less. Nowadays it has risen to several
hundred rupees. The story goes that a wealthy and prominent
Bhil in the Gongtha State paid Rs. 2300/- f :r his bride. Under
such circumstances it is no easy thing for the poor man to get
married. In spite of the price to be paid for the bride it seldom
or never happens that one comes across old spinsters or
bachelors. Be it men or women they are practically without
exception married at 20 or 25 years of age. The majority are,
of course, married long before that age. As regards the mar-
riage age, it is only during the last 50 years that child marriage
has been practised. Formerly marriage was not contracted
before adolescence. In the folklore of this people I have not been
able to find a single instance of the hideous Hindu practice of
child marriage having been followed. Nowadays it is, alas, far
from uncommon.

Polygamy exists as everywhere in non-Christian coun-
tries. Most people have to be contact with one wife due to the
fact that the women otherwise would not suffice. It is esti-
mated that 15% of the men have more than one wife, and out
of these 1% have three or four. Although the Bhil woman does
not have the same disposition as her European sister it must
be admitted that polygamy often results in jealousy, quarrels,
fighting, divorce and so on.

The man on his part is just as jealous as any European
might be. He looks upon his wife as his property, which he or
his parents have honestly purchased. Woe untohim who dares
to fall in love with his wife! That may mean death. Especially
tJiis is the case in Akrani. Otherwise he may be satisfied with
getting the money he has paid out for his wife so as to enable
him to buy another one. Divorces of this kind are rather com-
mon among the Bhils, especially on the plains. Before anything
is said about engagement and wedding rites, some other
peculiarities in connection with marriage must be mentioned.
One is the so-called levirate,. and the other is rather
common usage of the bridegroom serving for several years

28

with his prospective father-in-law for his bride. The levitate
exists only among the Kotli tribe, as far as I know. But they
regard it as proper for a younger brother to marry the widow
of his deceased elder brother, whether she has any children or
not by her first husband. An elder brother, however, may not
marry the widow of a younger brother. That would be incest.
For the elder brothers are regarded as fathers of the younger
once.

The custom of serving the prospective father-in-law for
the bride is common among all tribes, clans and tribal families.
This is resorted to when for instance the young man has no
money whereby to pay for the bride, or when the parents of the
girl do not want to be separated from her. They then persuade
a young man to become their "Koh-java", (son-in-law residing
in the house.)

A "Koh-java" has to serve for about three years before he
is allowed to marry the girl. During this time he works just as
an ordinary servant, the only difference being that at meals he
is served by the maiden of his choice. But this is the only
relationship between them. Any intercourse of an intimate
kind would be severely punished. It goes to the credit of the
young and testifies to a strict discipline still in force that not
one in ten should break this unwritten law.

Having come to the very act of the performance of the
wedding I repeat what has already been said, that it is a
complicated affair. There are no fewer than five stages with
several subordinate ones that those concerned have to go
through; or, to express it in a more dramatic way; it consists of
five acts with several sense; quite a drama, then.

The first act deals with the proposal, which is played in
the home of the girl by the parents and brothers of the young
man. This is called "hogai" (making of one kin.) The second act
contains the return visitby the girl's parents to the village and
home of the youth. This is called "Koho-herulo" (inspecting the
house). The third act is "dej" (giving of dowry) or the engage-
ment. The fourth is naturally the wedding which is called
"voral" (with cerebral I). And the fifth act is "ano" (the coming).
With this is meant the coming of the young wife to the family
of her husband to stay there, after having paid a ceremonial
visit to her parents' home after the wedding.

Space does not admit any descriptions of the many
ceremonies performed in connection with a Bhil wedding. One
or two things may, however, be mentioned. All the acts, with

29

the possible exception for the first one, are accompanied with
profuse drinking, dancing and playing. Liquor is literally
flowing. And all, men, women, children, drink, Liquor is the
burden of a marriage tale.

Another peculiarity is that the weddinghymns are sung
only by women and children, and that it is a custom in these
hymns to refer disparagingly to the one who is now be taken
into the family, while the one belonging to one's own family is
lauded without restraint. Thus for example the female rela-
tives of the bridegroom tell in their singing that he is wealthy
and noble, in possession of oxen, cows, buffaloes, and horses
etc: in plenty, that he sits on a spirited charge with a saddle
inlaid with gold and a golden saddle cloth; that he drinks finest
liquor and eats the most delicious courses, and so on. About the
bride, on the other hand, they sing that, by her poor parents
and tribesmen, she has been bathed in the filthly urine of an
ass, that she is poor as coolie, without other possessions than
a donkey, which she rides on, or travels on foot, and drinks a
mixture of cow-dung and water, eating pods and dross, and so
on. Her girl friends and female relatives sing in like manner
about the bridegroom and in the same glowingterms about the
bride as did the people of the bridegroom to his honour.

This peculiar custom corresponds with the boastful
disposition of the Bhil. Does the Gond lack in self-confidence,
the Bhil may be said to have got a double portion. This is
revealed specially when he is drunk.

Death and Burial Customs

As the wedding so has the burial five acts. There are also
many scenes to each act. Liquor plays an important part here
too. It flows as drink and offering, as a tribute to the deceased
and in ceremonies of purification.

The first act is "dukh", (suffering, sickness); the second
"mot" (death); the third "tijajo" (burial), the fourth "kukri
parulo" (chicken offering), and the fifth is "vori" (festival of
remembrance with singing and dancing).

It is touching to observe the care and consideration
bestowed on the deceased. He is presented with all kinds of
commodities: clothes, ornaments, silver bars, money, water
pitcher, pot house, liquor, tobacco and pipe, chickens, bread,
spices, pulses, a cot (which has been used as a bier) etc: It is
believed that he will need all these commodities in the other

30

world, where conditions are regarded as similar to those in this
world. In order to test whether the deceased has approved or
not of the arrangements made, the floor of the house of
mourning its strewn with ashes whereon grains of com are
thrown. This is done in the evening of the day of the burial. If,
in the morning, foot-marks of rats can be seen in the ashes, this
is a sign that what has been offered to and done for the
deceased has met with his approval.

On the whole as in the details, the burial ceremonies
present a sad spectacle without anything of inspiration. They
bespeak fumbling in the dark before of death and eternity.

Languages

As has been said already there live in West Khandesh
more than 250,000 Bhils. In most cases they speak their own
language or rather languages. During a Linguistic Survey
executed by one of our missionaries on behalf of Government,
no fewer than 15 languages or dialects were noted, including
those spoken on the border lines as Khandesh Bhil dialects.
Several of them are so closely related that by knowing one it is
possible to understand other of them. Others, on the other
hand, differ in such marked way that they have to be classified
as diflFerent languages.

Dehvali

The most important language is the one which is spoken
in the western parts of Nandurbar and Taloda Talukas and in
the Mewa States. This is called Dehvali, meaningthe language
of the plain. This name has been given to it because the
majority of those having it as their mother tongue live on the
plain.

About 80,000 Bhils and others living among them speak
Dehvali. It is no literary language, though. Before S.A.M. toolt
up work among the Bhils there was not one single line written
in that language. And when, in 1917, the Mission started to
pay a little attention to this question, there was in existence
only a translation of the story of the Prodigal Son and a few
sample pieces written for a Linguistic Commission which had
been appointed to classify the languages of India. Since then
the Four Gospels have been published and later the whole of
the New Testament has been translated and published by the

31

British and Foreign Bible Society. In addition a few religious
pamphlets have been published.

The example of the Mission has given a push to the
Hindus, who have also begun to take an interest in this
language. Thus for example, a Hindu in Nandurbar Taluka
has published a little book for children, containing fables and
short stories.

Another one has collected a fairly large vocabulary for a
dictionary. On the whole, it may be said, however, the Deh vali
is still an uncultivated language. Nor is any glorious future to
be expected for it. Like all similar minor languages it is doomed
to extinction. This will, however, take sometime. The major
Bhil languages are bound to live for several generations yet, for
the Bhil "- are a conservative people, espacially as regards their
language.

Valvi

Up in Akrani, where Mandulwar is situated, four or five
dialects of Bhili are spoken. The most important is no doubt
Powri, which is spoken by the majority in this area. The Powri
tribe also seems to be the most prominent of the hill tribes
living here.

Mandulwar, however, is situated in a different dialectal
area. The language of the people here is Valvi or Volvi. Most of
the Christian Bhils in Akrani speak this dialect. The Valvi
speaking tribe numbers no more than five or six thousand
people. Their language is, however, understood by a smaller
tribe. Moyri, whose dialect is closely related to Valvi. The
Moyris can only muster half the number. The number of the
Powri tribe may be estimated at 10,000 persons if those living
outside Akrani are included.

In Valvi there is now available an Infant Primer, a small
hymn book and a Catechism. In addition to these the New
Testament bas been translated and printed by the British and
Foreign Bible Society.

All Bhili dialects belong to the large Aryan family of
languages. There are, however, traces indicating that the
Bhils formerly have spoken another language. These traces
are few, and have not had much influence on the construction
of these dialects. They come closest to Gujerathi. The Valvi and
Dehvali dialects are closely related as are the people speaking
these languages.

32

The construction of the Bhili languages is simpler than
that of many other North Indian languages. They are com-
paratively easy to learn, provided grammars, readers, and dic-
tionaries were compiled.

Religion

The religion of the Bhils has hitherto been regarded as
gross animism. For the present, however, it is in a transitory
stage, being influenced very strongly by the crude form of
Hinduism. Thus for example a number of the Hindu deities are
being worshipped, as Hanuman (Maruti), Mahadev, (Shiva),
Kali in the form of Devi, Parbati, and Bavani (Shiva's consort)
a.o. In all some ten Hindu dieties are being worshipped by the
Bhils.

The Bhils also celebrate the main Hindu festivals: Das-
sera, Divali, Holi, a.o. although they are given a peculiar
expression which is very animistic in its character. A certain
caste system is being developed, which points to Hinduism. All
Bhils confess to be Hindus. And since Hinduism is so compre-
hensive as to have room for all and sundry, it may not be correct
to call the Bhils non-Hindus.

On the other hand are the peculiarities so many and so
important as to mark these people as different from the
Hindus. They have their own religion, which ought to be more
known. The Government officials and Hindu and other reli-
gious leaders are ignorant of its contents. Not even the mis-
sionaries know in its details, although some have been permit-
ted to peep into it. On the whole it remains a closed world.

The Deities of the Bhils

We have, however, got to know some of the superficial
features. Thus we know that the Bhils have at least 25 or 30
deities of their own which they still worship, although they are
not looked upon as Hindus. Hindu missionaries andreformers
are trying their best to put a stop to this, but, according to their
own statements, they have not succeeded. The village will be
destroyed; and so they will have to call in sorcerers and
diviners again and sacrificial priests in order to put everything
right. And. this will be too expensive, they say.

A Kolhi bridegroom

Chori, a wedding dance

A Kolhi bride

Jhoomer, a wedding dance

33

Among the Bhil deities are: the tiger, the boundary of
field god, god, Hivario, the village goddess Pandrio, the rain
god Nonduro, and the hill gods, which are several in number.
Hardly a month passes without the Bhils having to worship
one of the 35 or 40 gpds or goddesses which have been adopted.
Of the latter kind I'have the names of sixteen and of the former
nineteen.

The very rites of worship, that is what mantras are
mumbled, now the ceremonies are performed etc:; are known
to me. The majority of the Bhils do not know them, this is the
business and secret of the sacrificial priest. But this much is
known, that the worship is always connected with liquor and
offerings. As regards the use of liquor only two deities are
excepted, namely Mahadev and Maruti (Shiva and Hanuman),
both of which are Hindu deities.

The following are among unbloody offerings: grain,
coconuts, bread of wheat, cooked dumplings, rice, eggs, sweets
and milk, and as has already been mentioned, liquor. As
bloody sacrifices are presented: buffaloes, bulls, he-goats, and
cocks,. Greldingsandfemalesarenotacceptablesacrifices. The
animal must be a male and without blemish, After the birth
of a child, however, a hen is offered. The officiating person is
then a woman, namely the midwife.

Similarly the milk that is to be offered must not be sour,
nor eggs rotten. For the gods only the very best will suffice.
The Bhils often eat other grain than rice and cheaper bread
than wheat. But such things may not be presented as oflFerings
to the gods. Other things required for a ceremonial sacrifice
are red lead, sweet, oil and frankincense (from Boswellia
serrata). The latter is used for incense and the lead for
smearing the image. Two to four copper coins are also needed.
Of the deities of the Bhils five have a day each set apart
for them. On these days no one goes to work, neither beast nor
man. Allthesedaysfall within the rainy season. They are: the
rain god, the sun god, the field god, the tiger god, and the cattle
god. On the day of the tiger god or on the previous evening, is
also the snake worshipped. As has been seen the worship of
these deities express the foremost needs of a primitivie people
a good crop, healthy cattle, and protection against wild ani-
mals.

The other gods have no whole day set apart for them. But
their annual sacrifice is accorded to them. This must not be
neglected or the people of the village will have to put up with

34

no end of trouble.

With the exceptions of the Hindu gods, Hanuman and
Mahadev the Bhil gods do not live in temples or shrines. Three
of them have platforms of earth or stone. The hill gods live in
the open.

Twenty-three deities are worshipped during the cold
season, eight in the rainy season, and only two in the hot
season. This arrangement has its natural reason. During the
rains the most important gods of an agricultural and cat-
tletending people have to be worshipped. During the cold
weather after the crops have been harvested people are in a
position to afford the expenses connected with the sacrificial
ceremonies. In the hot season, on the other hand, taxes and
debts have to be paid. Then much is not left over for the gods.

As regards the sacrificial priests these serve their vil-
lage. They are never house priests. Every house father is
priest in his own house Anyone may become a sacrificial priest
(Punjari). But as a rule this calling is hereditary. The secrets
of the worship are not revealed to anybody, except the prospec-
tive priests, which have been chosen by the Punjaris as their
successors. The duties of the priest are not performed as a
prefession or a calling. The Punjari is a cultivator like the rest.
A Brahman is never called in as sacrificial priest or spiritual
adviser.

The majority of the male population of the village are
present at the sacrificial acts. The leaders may not be absent
without a valid reason. The sacrificial ceremonies havingbeen
completed, the Punjari distributes part of the things offered,
which may be eaten by those present, including the priest.
Some religious festivals are rounded off by heavy eating and
drinking bout. The expenses are paid by the whole village in
common. The fees for the priest are only one anna, the coins
offered, the food and liquor he has helped himself too.

Evil Spirits

In animism, an important part is played by the evil
spirits, the demons, which are called 'Put' or 'Putlo'. Of these
I have only got to know the names of a few. They are no doubt
very numerous. The two that are most dangerous have their
abode in graveyards and places for cremation. Should a person
pass such a place when these.demons are on their way out, he
will be at their mercy and their evil influence will either cause

35

illness or temptation to evil deeds, e.g. collecting and carrying
cremation ashes with the hands and so on.

Most evil spirits live in trees, especially in hollow ones,
others live in woods and on hills. One lives in Hades with the
dead. Several have, however, taken up their abode with man,
in his house or among his property etc. One may thus live in
the bed, another one, in the bedpoles, a third in the doorframe,
or in the door, a fourth in the threshold, a fifth in the ashes, and
so on. Boldness is said to have its evil spirit, poison insanity,
the bird all have their evil spirits.

While the gods are favourably disposed to men, the evil
spirits are always hostile. They are the cause of bad luck.
Disease and death are wrought by them. Similarly imbecility
and insanity. They are always planning mischief. They have
to be feared everywhere, for there is hardly a place whereof
their kind does not have his rightful abode.

Among the demons or dangerous spirits are 'churaV and
'soti'. The first ones are ghosts of women which have died in
confinement, after the child has been born, but before it has
been named, that before the fifth day after birth. The last
mentioned are ghosts of brides who have died after they have
been dressed for the wedding, but before the ceremony has
been performed. Both of these very dangerous spirits or ghosts
have their abode in wells, brooks, swamp, more seldom in
trees. Woe unto the one who runs up against a being, of this
kind! A soti is dangerous, especially to men, whom she will
pursue, seduce and kill, should they happen to enter her
sphere after dark.

A'chural' will treat a man in about the same manner as
does a 'soti'. But she prefers women. If opportunity off"er she
will take possession of a woman. This means illness and
insanity, and, if she is not driven out, a certain death.

Fortunately a 'chural' may be identified. She always
lights a torch when about to proceed on her tours; and if she is
observed, several torch es will be seen around her. Her feet are
turned and her fi"ont side has the appearance of a fully devel-
oped woman, while her back is hollow like a trough.

Witches and Magicians

Belief in witchcraft, magic, ghosts, and sorcery.

These, especially the witches, play an important part
among the Bhils. There are, of course, magicians but they are

36

not as numerous nor is their ability so great or disposition so
vicious as is the case with the witches. A 'dagan' (witch) is
almost worse than a demon. All sorts of bad luck and ruin,
illness and death are caused by witches. They are therefore
much feared. In reality those that occupy themselves with
sorcery are very few in number. Most of those that are alleged
of witchcraft are probably innocent. But there are those who
practice witchcraft as an occupation. Whatever may be the
case, if a woman has been pointed out as one who has 'eaten'
a person, she will from that moment on remain a most deplor-
able creature. She will be pursued, ill-treated and expelled
from society.

Ghosts of people that have met with an accidental
death.

If 'chural' and 'soti' may be said to represent also concep-
tions found in popular Hinduism, the case will be different
when we come to another of spirits; ghosts of people that have
died by accident. It is true that in places these are worshipped
also by the lower classes of the Hindus. But, as far as I know,
they do not elsewhere play such an important part as among
the Bhils.

To die by accident is, curiously enough, not looked upon
with horrorby the Bhils. It is rather a good form of death. The
one who has parted in this way — be it man, woman or child
— is said to have gone to the gods. And this is a reason to
perpetuate his memory on earth. He simply becomes a god.
This happens in the following way:

After the burial in the ordinary graveyard, either a staff
is made or a stone, three fact in length, is hewn. A picture of
the deceased is carved on the wooden staff or hewn out of the
stone. Over the head are drawn pictures of the sun, and the
moon, and under the feet a pictorial description of his death is
engraved. Thus for example, if he was drowned, the memorial
will have a well or a river; if he died by falling down from a tree,
from a cart, or a horse, a picture of the thing connected with his
death will be formed.

When the memorial is ready and clothes, ornaments,
food and liquor have been bought for the new god, for that is
what it will become, and sacrificial requisites and frankin-
cense have been secured, three or four Tbhagats' (witch doctors)
are called in to perform the ceremony. This is done with secret
rites, sawying, mumble of mantras and a maximum of pag-
eantry in the presence of all the male population of the village.

37

Those of the women who are next of kin are also in the
procession which now moves towards the house of mourning.
Just outside the village the officiating priest makes a halt,
causes a hole to be dug in the ground, in which the stone or the
wooden staff, properly clothed, will be placed. Then it is
smeared with lead diluted in oil. At the feet of it is offered
liquor and the very best of food, cooked and raw. To the upper
bracelets are tied.

After this dedication the priests together with the crowd
of people that have been invited make a big tree in the shade
of which they sit down. Here liquor and costly food are
partaken of copiously. When the time comes for the priest to
come home, they receive a sum of money, not less than ten
rupees for their services, and every body leaves for home.

The new god is now called 'patli' if the memorial is of
wood, and Tthotro' if of stone. The god will be worshipped by the
people of his family, often by others as well. Before sowing,
harvesting and threshing, and winnowing, and on numerous
festivals this god has to be remembered with foodstuffs of rice
and wheat and liquor, which never must be lacking, and a
burning oil-lamp. Every village has one or more gods of this
kind placed at its boundary.

Medicine Men and Witch Priests

If magicians and witches have no enviable position
among the Bhils, medicine men and witch priests (madvi,
bhagat, and hovrio) are given a place of honour and are very in-
fl'iential men. For they are not mischievious, that is, they do
not try to destroy people and cattle or eat them. Their duties
are to investigate about the causes of bad luck and illness and
remove them. They are also acquainted with the lives of gods,
demons and other spirits and are able to teach this subject
extensively. The madvi also knows how to appease the wrath
of demons, ghosts and goblins and give them the kind of
worship they crave. In like manner a bhagat is acquainted
with the gods and knows how to fill their needs.

But these 'Benefactors' of the people are not employed
but practice in a private capacity. They know how to charge
their clients heavily. As a rule, they are held in high esteem.
People believe in their ability to make out the whereabouts of
spirits, the causes of illness etc. from water, leaves from the
flame of the forest, wings of peacocks or coarse paper, or copper

38

coins. Just as deeply rooted fs their belief in their ability to
cure disease, drive out evil spirits and bind them etc.

Treatment of Spirits

There exist many rules and regulations, rites and cus-
toms, with a view to avoiding the evil influence of spirits. Thus
certain trees, wells, places, woods and clefts in the rocks must
not be visited without company or after dark, as they are
supposed to be dangerous. Amulettes have to be used or else a
special ring or another protective article. Even so one has
every reason to be on one's guard, to be cautious, as one is
surrounded on all sides by divine beings, which one may have
offended unwittingly, and evil spirits, goblins, ghosts and
other bad being which are always lookingfor an opportunity to
harm a person.

The tricks of deceiving or binding the spirits are many.
Only a few examples may be given. When a woman who has
died in confinement is to be buried, seeds of sesame and grass
are thrown on the path between the boundary of the village
and the grave yard up to the grave. This is to prevent her from
reaching her home when during the first five weeks she will
wander about every night trying to kill her child. This is done
in the following way: Havingleft the grave for her old home she
will stop to pick the seeds one after the other till the cock-crow.
Then she will return to hei- grave, replacing the seeds one by
one till she reaches the grave again. She will rest till the
following night, when the same thing will be repeated. It is to
the nature of the thing that a sufficient number of seeds are put
out in order to keep the ghost more than occupied for the night.
Another example. When a 'chural' has been discovered as
having her abode in a woman, she will be driven out and
confined to a tree by hammering several nails into the trunk of
the tree.

In all their childish simplicity these examples are touch-
ing and clarify better than words the low standard of the Bhils
in matters spiritual.

The Ethics of the Bhils

The ethical views of the Bhils do not range very high.
Direct commandments and prohibitions, expres<;ed in concisely

39

formed sentences do not exist. Rules and regulations, without
the attention to which a society cannot survive, are neverthe-
less to be found. They are theoretically imbedded in their
proverbs and rather numerous tales and stories, which are en-
countered within every tribe. Practically they are revealed in
customs and usages, the age-long authority of which none
dares to oppose. This might mean death in certain cases.

Taking into consideration their highly unsatisfactory
religion, it must be admitted that the Bhils are a people of a
comparatively high moral standing. They compare favourably
with the genuine Hindus. On the whole they are more truthful.
For a primitive they are of remarkable good manners. A Bhil
thathas notbeen degenerated will scrupously regard the right
of ownership. And still he is not greedy or ungenerous. In some
respects the sexual ties are very strong. That much in their
favour.

The dark spots on the character of the Bhils are, how-
ever, many and big. Drunkenness is probably more common
among them than with any other people in India. Quarrels and
frays, which often end in murder, are horribly common, espe-
cially among the hill tribes. Adultery is also very common,
often leading to divorce, when the offender after having paid to
the offended man the sum fixed by the village or tribal council,
will take the woman he h as fallen in love with as his wife. Then
his position in society may be just as honourable as anybody
else's.

The belief in sorcery and witchcraft darkens the life of
many. It has caused murders without number. By their
profound ignorance, which is looked upon almost as a virtue,
the people are kept down in poverty, weakness of mind and
body, which do not admit their intellectual growth or their
looking for higher ideals.

In their treatment of woman the Bhils are more ad-
vanced than the Hindus. She is freer. The widow is allowed to
remarry and may choose her own husband. But her condition
is not enviable. She is practically sold as a bride. In the tribal
or village council she has no say. In the worship r "the gods this
holds also true with one exception (Cfr. Ch. iii.) If she dies as
a bride or in confinement she will become an evil spirit, which
is to be feared. Only if she dies by accident will she become a
divine being. These details show that their reverence for a
woman is deficient.

40
Belief in Transmigration of Soul
The Bhils and Eternal Hope

Their is no eternal hope wdth the Bhils. It is true that
they believe in immortality, but their conceptions of it are very
vague. When a person has died he is said to have gone to God.
It is not believed however that he will remain there for any
length of time, let alone for eternity. Within short, some say
after a day, he has to return to this world being bom as a
different man. Nobody knows the length of this transmigra-
tion. Nor does anybody know where or within which people he
will be bom again. It is only known that he will be reborn as
a human being.

Behind the belief in a multitude of gods and goddesses
the Bhil has caught a glimpse of a supreme Being, which he
calls either Bhogvano or Ponmissar. In his heart of hearts he
believes in this Being. Hence the spirit of the deceased goes to
him. Bhogvano means the shining one, the adorable one, the
glorious one etc. Ponmissar means the Overlord, the Supreme
Being, the supreme or only God.

Folk Thoughts

1. Products of Wisdom
Proverbs

1. As a man doath, it will bedone unto him. As ye sow,
so shall ye reap.

2. The father should suffer the fruit of his deeds, the
son should suffer the fruit of his deeds.

3. Come, thou stone and fall on my feet. To invite
trouble.

.4. If a blind woman succeeds ingettinga husband she
will be busy over the bed. A blind person is not fit for marriage,
for she can do nothing but make the bed. There is however a
deeper meaning.

a. A person who has not the proper qualities should
not be given a responsible position.

b. A person who is deficient, morally or intellectu-
ally, should not be given responsible position.

5. On his wedding day a noseless person has seven-
teen hundred defects. A person who is to be married is badly
spoken of. A deeper or more comprehensive meaning is the fol-
lowing: A person who has once proved unreliable, will have the
opinion against him, even if he shows signs of a better life.

6. Even the noseless son is the offspring of the womb,
and a forged coin is kept in the cloth. Every one loves his own.

7. The mother-in-law has two days, but the daughter-
in-law has (or will also get) her day. If the former is harsh and
dominating, the latter may console herself with the hope that
time will come when the old woman will be weak and helpless.
Then she will be paid in her own coin. This is also applied to
proud and oppressive people in influential positions. The day
of reckoning cannot be evaded.

8. The backbiter ruins the village, and the leper the
water-place.

9. The blind man speaks and the deaf man listens.
This is said about persons who do not understand what they
are talking about, also of those who have misunderstood what
has been said or an order given. It is also used about false
rumours.

10. As the potter, so the pitchers as the father, so the
son. Corresponding to. Like priest, like people; and As the old
cock crows, so crows the young.

42

11. A learned man without virtue or ability. Learning
does not always mean a good character.

12. As soon, as he experiences erotic affections he wants
to get married. He acts on the spur of the moment in a
thoughtless way.

13. As the country, so the dress. To do in Rome as the
Roman.

14. Stretch her she will break, blow at her, she will fly
away.

A description of especially female beauty, but also that of a
child.

Some of these proverbs are international property and
have probably been take over from other tribes and peoples.
But others are coined by themselves. Whether borrowed or
coined do they indicate to a high degree that the Bhils are in
possession or moral principles, common sense and a sense of
beauty.

Riddles

If the Bhil is comparatively poor as regards proverbs and
sayings, it seems as if he were rich in riddles. My collection,
which together with the proverbs has been published in the
Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay contains
127. And this is probably only one seventh of the total number
in use.

Most of these riddles are so intimately connected with
Indian life with its Oriental animal and vegetable life, so as to
be untelligable to those who are not acquainted with these
conditions. The selection made for this article have been made
from those that have a bearing on subjects known even to the
Westerner, although this procedure does in no way give justice
to the rather high gifts of the Bhils in this field.

1. The rope wanders, the ox is lying still? The cucum-
ber and its tendrils.

2. A man has put on one coat after the others? An
onion.

3. Under the black rock there are four small fishes.
The four udders of a buffalo and a cow.

4. A fresh stick that none of us can bend? A snake.

5. When does a person drive out the cows and milk
the barn? Collecting honey.

6. Who goes forward working and backwards eating?
A chicken when picking for something to eat.

43

7. Like the Alma river, like the queen of lightening
does she wander hither and tither chatting? The squirrel.

8. Two stand up, two flatter and four walk? The two
horns, two ears, and four feet of the ox.

9. A roaring tiger in a well? The chum-staff in a
churn.

10. Aroundedbullock,diggingin an ant-hill? Achampa
measure in measuring a heap of corn.

11. When the calf of the black cow is driven out, won't
return to any of us? A bullet.

12. Having walked through the whole forest he stands
on a space not larger than a small copper coin? A walking stick.

13. A man who is neither cold nor warm and has no
sense, begins to dive? A spoon.

14. A tooth -pick used by two men? The axle of a cart.

15. A woman leaving the house bending hither and
thither. A broom.

16. What animal drinks water with the tail? A lamp.

17. There were hunters: one fired, one looked, and one
ran? The hands, eyes and feet of the hunter.

18. In a little chamber not bigger than a tumbler,
there sits a talking lady? The tongue.

19. A bird sits in a corner fluttering his wing? The eye.

20. If you chew, it won't be chewed, if you cut it, it won't
divide? Water.

21. While the animal is grazing its marrow is taken
out of its bones and eaten; then the bones are thrown on the
dung-hill, while the animal goes on grazing? The hen and her
eggs.

22. A white house without doors? An egg.

23. She has neither hands nor feet, and still she goes
out to work? A jacket.

24. Which is the biggest of all the musical instru-
ments? Thunder.

25. The red cows graze, the black cows butt, and the
black calves suck? A conflagration.

26. From one single ear the whole barn is filled with
chaff? The wick and the light.

27. What is the shadow of a small pipri-tree, fretted
with rays of light with shall buds (or jasmine flowers) round
about? The moon and the starry sky.

28. An eagle has 12 wings and 18 scores of eggs? The

44

year with its 12 months and 18 scores of days.

Whatever be the opinion as to the value of the riddles of
the Bhils, it cannot be denied that they indicate powers of
observation and imagination not to be despised.

2. The Bhil as Poet and Singer

As authors of poetry the Bhils do not rank high. They do
not lack poetical products, it is true, but these in no way be said
to be of any importance of whatever. In them we find neither
any flight of imagination nor any deeper feeling. The outward
form is usually trivial and flat.

As regards the subject matter it is poor. In this respect
the Bhils lag behind many other aboriginal peoples in India.
For instance they do not have anything that can be compared
with theremarkable Lingo hymns of the Gonds. Their poetical
products are confined to simple hymns for use at festivals and
sacrifices, besides wedding hymns and one to two hymns to
describe certain objects.

It is important, though, to get to know them, for in one
way they are the key to the heart of the people. In order to give
some insight into the poetical life of the people (Bhils) a few
samples will be produced. First a few remarks:

Among the hills men and women never sing together.
Singing is further not a part of their daily life. It is resorted to
only at festivals and weddings. In the weddings only women
and girls do the singing. This is also the case at holi. At dehvali,
on the other hand, the singing is performed by men only. For
the uninitiated it would seem as if women also partook in the
singing. For many men are dressed up as women. These men
may occasionally carry a baby in their arms while dancing, to
make the disguise perfect.

Wedding Hymns
Waiting for the Bridegroom

In the valley of Kathi the brother is saddling his horse, heigh

ho!

When the horse has been saddled, the brother will come, heigh

ho!

The guns matters, the brother is coming there, heigh ho!

45

Hearing the sound, the bride begins to cry, heigh ho!
She cries till the eyes get swollen, heigh ho! heigh ho!

The hymn is sung by the female relatives of the bride-
groom and his girl friends, when he is expected to the shami-
ana erected for the wedding festivities.

When the Bride is sent to the Home of her Husband.
The way is so long. Oh sister, don't return alone. Oh sister.
If father-in-law gets angry, Oh sister, don't return alone. Oh
sister,

If mother-in-law gets angry. Oh sister, don't return alone. Oh
sister,

If sister-in-law gets angry. Oh sister, don't return alone. Oh
sister.

If little sister gets angry, Oh sister, don't return alone. Oh
sister.

If brother-in-law gets angiy etc:
If little brother etc:

If husband etc:

Thus hymn is sung by the mother, sisters and friends of
the bride when she is sent for the first time to her husband's
home to live with him.

Little sister is the younger sister of the husband, little
brother his younger brother.

Hymns to the Gods

Hymn of sacrifice to Holi
Holi, holi keep holi for twelve months, heigh ho!
Two coconuts place at the feet of Holi, heigh ho!
Holi, holi keep holi etc:

Two garlands of sweets place at the feet of Holi, heigh ho!
Holi, keep holi etc:

Two young roosters place at the feet of Holi, heigh ho!
Holi, keep holi etc:
Two he-goates place etc:
Holi, keep holi etc:

Two he-buffaloes place at the feet etc:
Holi, keep holi etc:

Holi is the springfestival of India. It is celebrated during
the month of March. On this occasion passions are let loose as
at no other time. To the Bhils holi does not only represent a
festival, when, as among the Hindus, Krishna is being wor-
shipped, but Holi is to them the personification of a goddess. In

46

the above hymn Hoh is presented both as a goddess and as a
festival.

Hymn of praise to Kol Boari

I have come quietly dancing, Kol Boari,
I have come in a light shadow, Kol Boari,
I will build the fallen fence, Kol Boari
I will give milk and butter plenty, Kol Boari,
I will fill the empty grain-bin, Kol Boari
I will get many coins, Kol Boari,
I will leave laughing and dancing. Kol Boari,
I will leave dancing and jumping, Kol Boari,
I will take names of gods, Kol Boari,
I will take the name of Dehvali, Kol Boari,
I will take the name of Queen Dehvali, Kol Boari,
I will take the names of precious crowd, Kol Boari,
This hymn is sung responsively at the Dehvali festival
which is celebrated during the cold season, (end of November,
in December, or in the beginning of January). The first verses
are sung by a man disguised as a woman; and the last four by
a man in his own clothes.

At Dehvali the Bhils worship many gods. The name
means the festival of lights. And so it is to the Bhils. But they
have personified Dehvali and made her a goddess.

Kol Boari is really the meat-offering, consecrated by the
priest, of which he gives a pinch to each on of those present or
those standing near by. 0 reception of this they prostrate
before the object of worship, offering what they have re-
ceived.

In this hymn, however, Kol Boari has been personified.
It is the goddess praisingbefore the Bhil. She is going to fill all
his needs in the barn, in the grain-bin , in the milk vessel, in the
butter tub and in the money bag. Then there will be joy and
hilarity in his house.

In the last four verses it is the Bhil, anxiously asking
whnt divine name he is to take, that is to be called upon when
she has left. Which god shall he worship? Shall he worship
Dehvali? Shall he worship the "'precious croyd"? The last
expression refers to the numerous gods living in the moun-
tains, clifts and caves, and their worshippers. Kol Boari appar-
ently approves of this, for she is silent and disappears.

This hymn, which is one of the best hymns to the gods.

47

is un-doubtedly very old. The opening word, which has been
translated with I is anna. It is of Dravidian origin, correspond-
ing to nanna and anna of the Gonds and the Tamil nan.

3. The Bhil as Story Teller

If the Bhil is a poor poet, he is a comparatively good story
teller. The Bhils regard it a pleasure to sit down to listen to the
tales, fables and stories, told by their bards, and which contain
more humour than we should except. Some humoresques are
rather funny. The recital is done in the form of monotonous
singing so common in India. In several of the tales God is
presented under the names of Bhagwan (Bhogvan) or Ponmis-
sar.

While reading these stories it should be kept in mind,
that they are the products of a primitive aboriginal people. The
knowledge of God they give evidence of, goes to show that God
has revealed himself to them in some way.

The first of the stories presented is a translation from
Dehvali, the second from Valvi.

The Origin of Fever

In days gone by there existed in the world of sun (on
earth) neither fever, cough, pain or any other suffering among
men. People used to eat, drink and live in undisturbed happi-
ness. They had no idea about God. On account of this, God gave
himself up to deep thinking. He said, 'I have created the whole
world and the whole of humanity, and nonetheless I have been
forgotten. But if they be overtaken by suffering, they will
remember me and call upon my name.' Then he called the
angel Lalkathio and said to him, 'Go and call Fever, and bring
him to me.'

Lalkathio made off on the spot to call Fever (Boro). He
was as big as a donkey and was wallowing in the ashes of the
dust heap.

Lalkathio went up to him and said, 'Brother Fever, why
do you lie here idle?' 'Come on God is calling for you.

Having heard this. Fever, big as a donkey, rose with
haste and shook his body. Then the whole country was dark-
ened by the dust, that fell from him. So much ashes had stuck
to him.

48

Then he went straight to him (God), Placed himself
before "him with folded hands, saying, 'Oh God, what orders
have you for me?'

God answered, "Well, you should go down to earth (the
world of the sun) and cause man to be smitten by fever.'

No sooner had Fever heard this than he prostrated
himself before the Lord, whereupon he immediately left to
execute the order.

Having reached the world of the sun, he found people
occupied with preparing hemp. From this work they had got
such a bad kind of itch, that they were scratching themselves
as if they were mad.

Seeing this. Fever began to wonder whether men had
lost their mind, or what might have befallen them. They were
scratching themselves all over their bodies.

Come what may, Fever said to himself, I have to execute
CJod's orders. And so he began to approach the men.

Then came a gust of wind stirring the hemp stalks, some
of which fell down on the donkey-shaped Fever. And so he too
was attacked by such a bad itch that the whole of his body was
affected.

This was more than he could stand. He therefore turned
and ran off as fast as he could, swaying his tail. The puffs
caused by the swaying of the tail struck the people, and so they
were attacked by fever. Fever passed through the heavenly
spheres, returning to God. Here too he continued to scratch
himself, wandering about like and mad man.

Asked by God what had befallen him, he answered, 'Oh
God, I have been struck by the madness of the people in the
world of the sun. The Lord told him to return to his former
dwelling place. He then rushed off in a hurry to the dust heap
and lay down to wallow in the ashes.

Ailer these happenings God adopted the shape of a holy
man and went down to the world of the sun. There, people were
lying here and there in fever. Seeing this he began to fan
them softly and to give them medicine. In this way, they were
cured from the fever. He also introduced worship of God and
gave rules for sacrifices and worship. Having thus taught men
he disappeared.

It is in this way that cough, fever, pain, and suflFering
have come into this world. It is worthy of note that the fever
that entered the world, was only the result of the puff caused
by the donkey-sized Fever swaying his tail. But even so this

49

fever is a great suffering to bear for man. What might not have
happened if the donkey-sized Fever had been allowed to
remain on this earth. People would not have been able to stand
it. The death of tomorrow would have taken place today.

But lo, the purpose of God was only to keep man in
submittance. All power is his. But in his mercy he has sent a
fever only caused by the swaying of a tail. In this he has
bestowed upon us his mercy, for which we daily in the early
morning ought to offer him our humble worship.

The Revenge of the Sparrow

Once upon a time there were a he-sparrow and a she-
sparrow. They had both united and lived ofT the grains and
seeds they could find and pick up. One day it so happened that
the she-sparrow got it into her mind that she ought to have a
pair of new shoes. She immediately asked her husband to have
a pair made and give to her.

Both then went to the shoemaker, and the sparrow gave
him orders to make a pair for his wife. The shoemaker an-
swered; Tt shall be done. You may leave your wife here with me
and go home. I will prepare the shoes for her and let you have
them. You may come to fetch them tonight!' o

The sparrow then left his wife and went home. The shoe-
maker then rose and killed the she-sparrow and put her out in
the back-yard to dry. In the evening, about the time when the
cows come home, the he-sparrow came and asked, if the shoes
for his wife were ready. The shoe-maker answered. The skin
has not dried yet, and you come here to ask for the shoes. Go
and see if it has dried, and come back and tell me then.'

The sparrow went out to investigate. What he saw made
him astonished, and he cried out, The shoemaker has killed
my wife!'
Weeping and crying vehemently he went tahis house.

Some time later one evening he yoked two rats to a cart
and started out on a journey. Driving along the road he came
across a fresh splash of cow-dung. This began to address him,
saying, 'Brother, where are you going? 'I am going to the
shoemaker,' replied the sparrow. The cow-dung then asked
him if she might go with him. Yes, you may come along,' said
the sparrow.

He then sat up in the cart and both went on. After a while
they met a scorpion. He too began to question the sparrow as

50

to where he was going. The sparrow answered, The shoe-
maker has killed my wife. We are on our to his house,' Said he,
'May I too come along?' 'yes, it is alright, come on.'

The scorpion sat up in the cart, which rolled on with the
three passengers. Driving along they met a snake. As soon as
the snake caught sight of them, the snake rose and addressed
the sparrow, saying, "Where do you intend to go, brother?' "We
are on our way to the shoemaker,' replied the sparrow. 'May I
too come along?' the snake went on. he sparrow said, "Why not,
sit up.' And the cart rolled on again.

Proceeding they met a dove. She began to ask, 'Brother
Bird, Brother Bird, where are you going?' The sparrow an-
swered, 'The shoemaker has killed my. wife. We are now going
to see him.' The dove said, 'I will come along too.'

He allowed her to sit up in the cart and started off again.
Within short they had reached the Shoe-maker's house. Here
they first took council as to the duties to be allotted to each one
of them. And so a plan was made.

The cowdung sat down by the door and the scorpion on
the candle-stick in the niche of the wall. The dove went to the
fire-place and the snake struck the shoe-maker. The shoe-
maker got terrified and began to shout, 'I have been stung by
a snake, I have been stung by a snake!'

His wife then went to the niche to light the lamp. But
there was the fresh cowdung by the door. And she had the bad
luck to step into it and down she fell. A thud was heard. She
rose, however, immediately and stretched out her hand to light
the lamp. Quick as lighting the scorpion gave her a sting.

She also began to shout and made for the fire-place,
where she started to blow at the coals to make a fire. Instantly
the dove began to flutter her wings and caused the ashes to
come into her eyes, which she then began to rub. Then the
shoemaker died.

The bird now yoked the rats to the cart again. His
companions all went to their homes. And the sparrow returned
to his home and lived there.

Social Life

To lease an improved and rational system of living on the
culture of an aboriginal tribe may stimulate the less critical
observer to nourish feelings of surprise. Aborigines and their
primitive culture acquired - thanks to disorted reports of

51

explorers who usually culminate their investigations by re-
leasing a flood of minimising and prejudicial literature on the
subject-acquired the reputation of forming the elements of the
lowest possible strata of human advance and this stage of
affairs became an ill-used criterion applied by mankind who,
only too eagre to cover its own shortcomings, loves to draw
attention to those inhabitants of the Earth less advanced (or
should one; say less shrewd) than itself. Contempt and the
cherished manner of looking down on less fortunate fellow-
creatures resulted consequently in harmful misunderstand-
ing which could so far not be drowned by the voices of a very
limited number of interested and understanding investiga-
tors. Even the school books are packed with wrong and entirely
misleadingdescriptions of thelife, modes of living and cultural
manifestations of aborigines and it is hardly astgnishing that
this type of knowledge - once established in the receptive mind
of a young grain-tends to remain fixed. The mere mention of
the word "Junglewallah" provokes a shudder, projectingphan-
tastic scenes of naked tribesmen hunting in hostile virgin-
forests, notions of squalor and filth, primitive life in caves and
blood thirsty feasts on unspeakably repulsive kinds of food.
The Press, magazines and Film further corrupt the minds of
children and adults by presenting the aborigines in a manner
irresponsible and positively prejudicial, exploiting by this
means man's utterly regrettable inclinations to see and to hear
something about hair-raising habits of some isolated and
rfeglected tribe. The impression is created that one should be
very glad to belong to a more cultured circle, apart from a
deliberately fostered tendency to keep aloof from those wretched
creatures the sight of which is already enough to drive anybody
to fits. Did not every one of us read thrilling stories of aborigi-
nes who roast their slain opponents to death? Certainly canni-
balism did exist, though it has long been proved that cannibal-
ism was based on a carnal lu-st and cruelty, but noTbody felt
prevented to believe that this kind of barbaric lack of consid-
eration-that contributed so much to the rather doubtful repu-
tation of aborgines is nothing else than a ritualistic manifes-
tation of a certain type of culture excellent in the eyes of the
adherents, but not too pleasing in the eyes of the civilised
world.

Besides, the city-dweller whose whole outlook on life is
exclusively centred on appearances, make-ups, aping of supe-
riors, fashions and super-smart chit-chat on world-reforms,

52

brotherhood and mutual understanding etc, feels instinctively
repulsed when he is compelled to contact a stray -member of an
aboriginal tribe. The junglewallah is usually the exponent of
poverty and shabbyness his simple manners do not make him
eligible to membership of dandy-clubs and notto well-fedin ad-
dition, the tribesman unwillingly contributes to the mainte-
nance of wrong ideas as to himself. This shy and helpless be-
haviour, his embarrassment apparently stress that he merely
belong to the skum of mankind. The impression is indeed quite
wrong; somejunglewallahs maybe rascals, the majority, how-
ever, incorporated more candable elements into the simple but
pure culture of their tribes, thought less civilised as they may
be, the abrigine positively represents, a most valuable type of
man and it is the very object of this study to analyse, to
compare, to sift and to separate the characteristics of aborigi-
nes with the aim of establishing a definite programme of
rejuvenation, reform and appreciation. This paper is not in-
tended to be another ethnological treatise, though based on
ethnology, it aims at the creation of a new spirit, a new
attitude. Once consciousness is acquired, it will ultimately
result in a new culture and mental outlook combining the best
that the so-called primitive and the advanced civilizations
have to offer. Logically, only those who deeply plunged into this
most fascinating subject are entitled and able to undertake
such a task.

Besides, the great number of tribes makes it from the
very beginning impossible to consider all the good elements of
all the various tribal cultures and, consequently, the writer
prefers to limit his scheme- though not lessening it in value •
to a comparative study of the Bhils (Kandesh) who, after an
existence in exclusion casting many centurise, have succeeded
in preserving an exceedingly high culture absolutely from
hampering influences from outside. A culture sparkling with
life, simplicity honesty and a notable absence of hypocrisy.
These assets alone are worthy of any effort. Present day's life
became so cramped an affair, complicated in all its details,
dominated by greed, falsehood and hypocrisy, boredom and
lack of sincerity and it is imperative to question the usefulness
of so wretched a force which our lives have happened to
become-through our own fault. Should we not listen to the song
of aborigines peacefully relaxing in the shade of a mohur tree?
A song so free from wordly haste, so rich in sound, saturated
with a melodious narrative of love, frank longing, fulfilment

53

and happiness. This is the language we should learn to under-
stand and once understood, we will cease to be slaves of our
own life and our self-created institutions.

It is unnecessary to dwell on the origin of the Bhils. Many
writers have stated that they inhabit their land since the dawn
of history and not being able to contradict such a statement,
matters are left as they are, in as much as they have no direct
bearing on the aims of this publication. One circumstance,
however, is noteworthy. The Bhils do not stand back in their
earliest efforts to discover the great riddle that envelops the
creation. The small selection of my theological accounts that
follows, proves that the Bhils, despite an entire absence of any
form of intercourse with any of the highly advanced - but now
extinguished - peoples or nations, acquired beliefs not much
unlike those the great Western Cultural movements.
Any body acquainted with the mythology of the East will not
have the impression that the religious myth of the Bhils offers
anything fundamentally new or distinguishable. But this is
not the point; the realization that the Bhils were-despite the
lackof contact with the outer world-able to develop a theory not
(in principle) much different than the mythological interpreta-
tions of dominant folk groups in India and elsewhere, is
witness of an advanced degree of reasoning. It is not intended
to claim that the Bhils succeeded in discovering the facts that
really governed the act of creating the Universe. They are
positively utterly mistaken, though aiming at the proper dem-
onstration of the great trend that characterises everything
produced by the Bhils, namely simplicity and the desire to seek
delight even in un-explainable happenings. Simplicity is the
key-note; the inexplainable is taken for granted. For the sake
of convenience, gods act in the same way as any Bhil would like
to act. This very convenient attitude attributed to the Creative
Powers was withouthesitation applied when human problems
were at stake. If every thing is feasable in theory, then it should
as well be feasable in practise and no worry or anxiety are not
able to produce anything creative. The Bhils adopted such a
simplified outlook on life as one of the main objects of their
existence.

It must be stressed that it is not intended to advocate as
truth the religious beliefs of the Bhils nor will it ever deem
desirable to make any attempts aiming at a world-wide estab-
lishment of a new religion based on Bhil beliefs. Should,
however, the introduction of a new belief result in a losing of
fVinao Viarrassiner conventions that strangle our present life,

54

well, in such a case it would be justified to do so. The conflict
that would result would, however, culminate in more damage
than good and the solid points therefore to the mere acceptance
of a desirable attitude and out-looks.

There is not the slightest doubt that our present civiliza-
tion resulted in an unheard advance. Innumerable amenities
are at our disposal, new inventions make us believe that our
lives became richer and worthwhile living, though it must be
admitted that this type of advance deprived us from any
chance to live in a natural way, to express ourselves freely, to
act accordingly to our desires, to express our feelings in a
fashion devoid of hypocrisy, man has himself completely
undermined confidence in himself and his brethem are no
more able to meet him on terms of mutual goodwill and under-
standing. Present day's life is absolutely barren of simplicity,
we watch each other with fear and have to maintain an
uninterrupted state of alert and the whole atmosphere in
which we move seems to be saturated with poisonous vapours.
This is the result of civilization.

Now, any advance that really results in an advancement
of our liberties can only be sought by struggling against those
powers that corrupted our very existence. There is no need to
discard the good, through there is no limit, in acquiring more
properties and by pointing to the culture of the Bhils, it must
be understood that nobody is expected to accept without reser-
vation any out-of-date conceptions that might still linger in the
minds of the Bhils. Unconditional surrender of the whole
structure of our own outlook is bound to be followed by an
irrational upheavel and it is more advisable to borrow from
others. We can borrow a good deal from the Bhils, though, of
course, they as well have to borrow from us, but it will be
demonstrated that the aboriginal has greater treasures to
distribute than any member of the highly advanced races.

Cosmology

With other nations of the East the Bhils share the belief
that the Universe consisted in the beginning merely of an
enormous boundless sheet of water, enveloped in darkness.
This state of affairs was, however, interrupted by the appear-
ance of an enormous light which emitted a bell-like sound. This
sound, gaining in volume, acquired the shape of a man who, far
from being passive set out to create various parts of the

55

Universe by putting his hands on the sheet of water and
continents appeared wherever his hands came in contact with
the wet element. The stretches of water dividing the conti-
nents were conveniently called the sweet sea, the saltish sea,
the chik sea, the kid sea, the black, the oily and the yellow sea.
The whole Universe was thereafter in an orderly fashion
divided into 9 parts though a tenth region had to be added
suitable for the erection of a holy town.

As soon as it became evident that a reliable sources of
light must be made available, the huge man ordered that a sun
has to appear, whilst a softer light was required for the
illumination of nightly sceneries. Additional arrangements
caused the moon to increase and decrease which greatly aided
the inhabitants of the World to determine time and seasons.

In order to animate the Earth, insects were created by
Cxod, first those that live in the water and those that live on the
firm surface of the Earth. An additional blessing was added in
the shape of grasses, trees, shrubs and fruits and the insects
soon understood that they are meant to grow for their own
maintenance and protection. God furthermore decided that
the introduction of the Summer, Rainy and Winter Seasons
would greatly facilitate matters and he did accordingly.

God, however, was not satisfied with the thought that
His creation was merely inhabited by insects and he took thus
some earth into his hands and moulded 2 human beings, a man
and a woman. By the blow of his breath life was impated to the
moulds and with His blessings the two started to rule over the
Earth and over every thing on it..

The first man and the first woman - called Mahadev and
Parwati - became the ancesters of all mankind. Their son and
daughter formed one union resulting in a vast multiplication
and every one has to trace his origin back to this couple.
Though the increasing number of men soon resulted in a clash
of opinions and various castes and religions resulted from the
querrel, but every body was as liberty to follow his own
vocation, some occupied themselves with the cultivation of
their lands, others served or reard domestic animals.

Every thing went well and according to plan, but every
body felt that the sky was still missing and the impassionate
God created the sky covering the whole Universe, adorned by
the sun and the moon. In order to prevent the sky from falling
down, the sky had to be well fixed and He used for this purpose
a good many nails. The nails are still to be seen; they acquired

56

the form of stars and it is worth mentioning that God abstained
from using the nails indiscriminately. The nails were placed in
such a position that they represented the outline of things well
known on Earth, and He omitted not to design a cot, a bird
sitting on its eggs, a plough, a thief and a dog.

On the moon, so ample in space, a banyan tree was
planted and on one of its spreading branches a witch was
hanged as a warning to all the world. The witch is still hanging
there to-day.

Sincere in his eadeavours to maintain the world in good
order. God passed orders regulating the health or man and
beast. Thus, God desire that we keep our house and its sur-
roundings clean by sweeping the refuse into gullies or water-
courses. Fortunately, sweepers are available to occupy them-
selves with such a task, but so far as the jungles had to be
cleaned themselves. The dirt of the jungle and the remains of
fallen animals are eaten by other creatures and foulness and
evil smell is removed. The leaves falling from the trees are
swept away by the wind and deposited elsewhere till the rains
burst. The torrents recondition hills and valleys, cany the dirt
to the sea where it is finally consumed by insects - burdened
with the task of keeping the seas transparent and clear. And
by this means sun-light, air and water, insects and animalsbe-
came helpers of Crod.

This legend, incorporating the main principles of the
religious beliefs of the Bhils, underwent alterations and vari-
ations of the same theme are narrated wherever Bhils have
settled down. There is, for instance, the story told of 7 sisters
who, after being created by God, were ordered to descend to the
bottom of the sea. The 7 sisters obeyed the command and as
soon as their feet touched the sea-bottom, they set out to collect
sand and earth (mud), forming with great care piles which,
after assuming proper size and shape, became the continents.
God was highly pleased with the excellent work done by the
diligent sisters and he extended these the invitation to remain
and to settle. He promised to send every year a rainy season
conveying a feeling of happiness and freshness to every thing
on Earth. The 7 sisters readily succumbed to this generous
suggestion and since that day the arrival of the monsoon is
every where expected with joy and longing.

Another legend goes a step father. Its origin is insofar
noteworthy as it clearly demonstrates that the Bhils, despite
the utter primitiveness of their conceptions of the Universe,

37

pondered the destinies of man. Fate, and the impossibility to
escape from it, has apparently to a large extent occupied their
mind. The sisters related to in the following legend certainly
occupy the same status as an Angel of the mythology of other
races. Their functions, at least, are the same.

As the time the Almighty created Mahadev and Parvati,
he created simultaneously 2 sisters who were employed in the
service of God. They were given the task of writing down the
fate of newly bom children. One of the sisters settled such
items as the life in general, happiness, the various difficulties
that have to be met in the course of the life and, finally death,
whilst the second sister was empowered to fix by the means of
notes the degree of wealth and earthly riches that fate kept in
store for each individual. No power on Earth is strong enough
to change or to alter the dictations bound to develop as
predestined.

The Bhil's fatalistic attitude towards fate is certainly
one of the reasons that led them to acquire a sense of helpless-
ness. Lack of impulsive initiative so far as their well-being and
prosperity is concerned, is one of the characteristics so inher-
ent in Bhils that much time will be needed before a change to
the better becomes noticeable.

One more legend may be added. It originated in our the
desire to explain how it is possible for the Earth to resist the
laws of gravi'j . Grod overcame this difficulty by placing the
Earth on the head of a snake and, so that legend runs, the
snake sometimes feels the heavy burden resting on her head
and in an attempt to rid herself, the whole Universe is set into
vibrations and the strange phenomenon becomes noticeable in
the form of an earth-quake.

It is inconceivable how this strange, phantastic and
rather absurd myth kept strong and alive durig the centuries.
It is therefore justified to say that those stories solely survived
on account of the fact that bards and professional story-tellers
chose them as particularly suitable. A primitive mind is at-
tracted by glorified primitiveness and the circumstance that
the very act of creating the Universe was a deed so absolutely
beyond his power of comprehension, fostered probably a feel-
ing of appreciation of the super-natural. No part, (not even an
alteration of it) of Bhil mythology was ever incorporated into
his religious beliefs. On the contrary, the Bhil ponders very
little over God. He merely believes that (some kind of a) God
is great and powerful and his worship consists only in applying

58

some zinc-chloride or stones and boulders, being quite satis-
fied that the sight of white pain ted stonesnotonly pleases God,
but will also stimulate future generations to remember the ex-
istance of God. Sometimes and temple is visited after having
equipped themselves with a sufficient quantity of zinc-chlo-
ride which is more or less lavishly, smeared on the very next
best stone in sight, being it within the temple or near by. On
such occasions chappals and boots are removed, one bows
slightly butnot without reverence and the bow becomes obliga-
tory when-ever the road passes a stone auspiciously shining
with a coat of paint.

Now, nobody is expected to imitate the Bhils so far as the
ritual of their religion is concerned. Our attention is, however,
drawn to the admirable lack of complicating factors. Religion
ceases to be a menace; the Bhils do not believe in any kind of
hellish existance ater death. One might be plagued with all
kinds of devilish inconveniences during life time, but they are
neither wished nor caused by God. It is God's business to be
present at least somewhere in the Universe and, apart his
whereabouts. He is expected to notice painted stones and show
by means of some kind of benevolent manifestation that even
the most insignificant efforts is highly appreciated.

Taking into consideration that religious conflicts never
upset the Bhil community and that no bitter reud ever resulted
from doctrinal differences opinion, one dares say that this type
of extremely simplified religion possessed more merits than
usually admitted. The religion as such does not matter, the
resulting attitude is most remarkable and, provided that the
"civilised" world desires to learn somethingfrom so primitve a
tribe, many of us should consider it worth the candle to
scrutinize our own response towards the religion into which we
were bom. Be it again stressed that no attempt is made to gain
converts, it is merely desired that we should cease to make our
life too burden some by attaching great importance to trifles.
Life is encrushed with a host of disputable bagatelles.

Much has been said as to religion. Religion is certainly of
great educational value and one of the main pillars that
supports the structure of Human Society. Unfortunately, reli-
gion acquired many grotesque forms or developed complicat-
ing ramifications which, grote-estranged from the principal
idea that formed the initial foundation, lost their right to exist
and is merely maintained for the sake of tradition. No country

59

encouraged this trend more than India. Continuously splitting
up in sections and sub-sections, the religious outlook became
as confused as the sections into which man started to divide his
circle or society, hardly leaving chances open to those who
rather prefer to escape. 'Advanced Civilization' or its wrong
interpretation is one of reasons. If mankind had remained
simpler or had considered simplicity a value impossible to
replace, man's cravingfor new variations of the existing would
not have driven us so far. In some countries, it became fashion-
able to applaud and follow anything that is new, particularly
if the new caters for those of us who believe to have finally
discovered something that might satisfy their longing for
sophisticated mental torture and mortification. Happiness is
neither at the bottom of such distorted longings, nor any
happiness ever results by rushing unihterduptedly to new
ideas. The old and well-established but lightheartedly dis-
carded religious attitude of yesterday became nearly a thing of
the past though not everywhere. The Bhils, for instance, are
far away from lending a hand to bigotry, they never think of
expressing any doubts so far as their religion is concerned and
feel perfectly happy about it. The desire to complicate existing
does not exist and although the ritual of painting stones does
not appeal to adherents of other religions, it still remains a fact
that the Bhils derive a certain satisfaction and consolation
from doing so and, as the spirit counts and not the deed, one
may justly say that we can indeed adopt the liberal idea and
apply them in such a way that we free ourselves from chains
which we ourselves have slung round our ankles. Bhil religion
is not devoid of heathenly outlooks, but should they desire to
do so, nobody should ever attempt to destroy their own beliefs
not as long at least as the horizon of their happiness remains
undisturbed.

First as much as the mysterious events of the creation of
the Universe merely awakened the desire to marvel at it and
to wrap it into a mantel of glory, in the same way religion is
approached by the Bhils and they are more than satisfied that
if in transit values generally attached to things by which we are
influenced or surrounded - should not be clarified and codifyed,
as nothing can be gained by it. Clarification creates problems
and each problem can only be solved by creating more and such
a thing is, of course, not the path on which a Bhil would like to
stroll. He is not dominated by religion, it is taken partly as a
necessity, partly as the cause and reason of a good number of

60

festivals and holidays and nobody, not at least a Bhil, has ever
resented a festival.

It is undoubtedly not a coincidence that even the tribes-
man-who has never heard of any alike aspirations of other
nations made many a start in order to reveal the even greater
mysteries of life after death. Nobody has so far succeeded in
tearing the veil that conceals the greatest of all mysteries,
though it is more than amazing that so primitive a mind came
to the same conclusions as did more advanced groups. It is
likely that tales, describing the dreadful things that will hap-
pen to any wicked person after death, circulated in the earliest
times during which group movements and migrations took
place. It can, however, not with certainly be denied that the
Bhils possessed great imaginative power, combined with the
desire to describe in such a manner the difficulties that await
the sinner, that they represent any kind of punishment that
could possibly be administered by themselves here on Earth,
in case they were called upon to do so. Many things are
described as wicked, for instance "driving cows from a field". A
trifle in itself and extremely insignificant in the eyes of those
who are not acquainted with life in village and jungle, but,
alas, inferno awaits those who drive cows away, where they
will be joined by those who are back-biters, cheats, liars or
rogues or by departed souls of man who indugled into the
following bad deeds; torturing an innocent animal, deceit,
murder, intercourse with the wife of another man, unnatural
intercourse or any sexual relations with sisters, sister's daugh-
ter, aunt or grand-mother etc., infanticide, seducing a woman,
theft, putting obstacles into good deeds, showing the house of
a butcher, setting fire to houses, destroying com with the help
of mantras, refusing water to the thirsty, insulting the sage or
a monk, destroyingyoung plants, disobedience to parents, not
must one be accustomed to rapt — Well, every body who is
found guilty of anyone of those offences will be required to
answer for them at the gate of heaven. The road leading to
heaven's gate is not an easy one; the disciples of god Yama drpg
the souls of the departed along a path ten times sharper tiian
a sword, whilst those who behaved well during life-time reach
Paradise with ease and comfort. Many calamities await the
wicked sinner's soul;pits and ditchesfiUed with scorpions, fire,
serpents, ants and worms form a perpetual menace and only
those who succeed in getting through this infernal maze
ultimately manage to approach God.

61

As in any other religion, punishment awaits the bad. It
is a kind of belief that crept into every creed; particularly
useful if it is meant to influence the ignorant. It was actually,
much better if fear was entirely obliterated from religion.
There is no such thing like hell and infernal torture; God who
created us, presented us in the same time with the ability to act
wrong and as the wrong takes place during our earthly life and
is so closely related to our life, any kind of wrong is punished
here on this earth. Many escape punishment, others do not feel
it or refuse to realize it. The threats of punishment after death
are merely means of checking uncontrolled action and serve to
maintain order. The soul, if their is any, has little to do with
any deeds dictated by bodily lust or physical cravings and can
therefore not be punished after death.

The Bhils inclination to take things as easy as possible
finds expression in all his way of life. No doubt, they could be
happier as they are and it is rather essential to rid them of
certain rude customs which could be achieved by introducing
social reforms. Popularising social reforms faces, however
difficulties due to the remoteness and inaccessibility of the
settlements or villages. Besides, people livingin remote village
are inclined to be obstinate and headstrong so far as their own
social customs are concerned, though, here again, the same
attitude can be observed in towns with the only difference that
constant contact with strangers is bound to result in a change
of the ways of viewing things and a certain progress to the
better usually results in the mitigation of limited and crude
aspects that, by tradition , deprive social customs of any elastic
adaptability. The villager and particularly the tribesman who
dwells in forest and jungle usually suffers from some kind of
inferiority complex which stimulates the desire to cultivate
friendship exclusively with co-members of his own society,
avoiding, so far as possible, contact with the world beyond the
limit of the forest outskirts, a ban to the free development of
their faculties is created which, of course, resulted in back-
wardness. Although the Bhils are to a large extent themselves
responsible for this state of affairs, many circumstances work
together making it impossible to achieve the desired goal, even
if agood number of Bhils had the intention to cast away certain
crude customs and adopt those of more advanced clans or
groups. Language is one of the chief obstacles and it should be
attempted to introduce at least one common that could be

62/

understood by everybody. Only then will it be possible to bring
them to the level of other advanced communities.

One question arises: Who is to be blained?The tribesman
was deliberately made to feel thathe is an extremely backward
and ignorant creature and no possibilities and chances were
offered to him to rid himself from so wrong an exposition.
Provided efforts are made, steps could soon be taken that
would lead the Bhils to cultivate the desire to contact the outer
world. Such a chance was so far only very sparcely offered to
hill-tribes. It was, on the contrary, not even wished that a
change of outlook on life overlooked; they prefer to deal with an
ignorant clientale from which greater profits can be extracted.
Thus, the more shrewd communities. can, directly and indi-
rectly, be made responsible for the backwardness of the Bhils
who, not inclined to worry much about it, left things as they
are. Lack of ambition and the complete absence of any thirst of
power kept the Bhils in the background or in a kind of
perpetual exile. Many traditions, customs etc. had hereby the
change of being preserved and it is only too natural that they
differ widely from those in use by wealthy townfolk. Town-
dweller are, however, not therefore entitled to detest the
primitive man. The latter has to a large extent in ancient days
taken part in the gradual formation of our present social struc-
ture and it is certainly not the fault of the oboriginal that
others managed to outflankhim. The more intelligent man will
always surpass ignorant, though ignorance has nothing in
common with stupidity and the Bhils are certainly not stupid.
They might be careless and easy-going, but one should take
into consideration that a stay in any locality remote from the
rest of the world exercises a paralising effect. Items that seem
so important elsewhere, dwindle into insignificance and in-
stead of acquiring additional faculties, mind and body feels
dragged into the claws of animalism. The whole reason of life
appears futile, struggle becomes absurd and resignation in-
vades the mind. It is from this very angle that onehad to jungle
the aborigines; it is preposterous to expect from them any thing
with which they simply cannot be acquainted. Any body, for
instance, who derives his livelihood by collecting forest-pro-
duce hardly enabling him and his family to exist, will exhibit
such a passive attitude. Accustomed to a dreary life and
knowing that the lot of his forefathers did not vary in any way,
does not feel induced to effect a change or, better even, he
acquires the conviction that his ways of living are the best

63

possible. In case he shares such an opinion with others, an
atmosphere of happiness and contentment can be created and
maintained. Not knowing the lure of refinement, he is satisfied
with the available and consequently more happy than those
who hastily rush from one innovation to the other, not even
taking time the possibilities of one of them.

Thus, primitiveness of the aborigin is not disqualifying
and primitiveness excuses a certain crudeness that slipped
into his daily life, though crudeness may riot be looked upon
from that angle by the aborigin himself. In his eyes it is merely
a lively, but natural manifestation of his own sphere. The
introduction of reforms might possibly upset the equilibrium
and instead of imparting benefit, the decreased pressure of
handed down tradition can eventually result in a moral up-
heaval and uproot whatever was firm so far. It will at least
happen in extreme cases. In case now if his fellow-brethren
object to tribesman's being coarse and rude, in such a case it is
perfectly alright to be crude, because by being crude they
merely cater for the expectations of those who do not for one
momenc expect anything else. The introduction of refinement
would only result in creating a ridiculous atmosphere of
dandyism and far away from being understood, the tresspas-
ser will only feel uncomfortable and try to fall back on the old
standard, or even go beyond it in order to recapture his lost
position. Uplift;, provided it aims at the amelioration of finan-
cial calamities, is always welcome, but every step that at-
tempts to transform a Bhil into a student of Shakespeare's
works is wrong. The aboriginals will not benefit by it and
Western Civilization will not see any blessing in it. The ability
to read and write their own language is much more praisewor-
thy and if this is achieved, the Bhils can for themselves decide
if it is necessary to change their habits.

With the view to stress that foreign influence is not
always beneficial a few notes will follow; notes collected in
places where Bhils are living. Moreover, the contents of tliese
notes are utterances of Bhils themselves and it will be seen
that education is not at all looked upon as an asset.

Faithfulness, hospitality, strictest adherence to truth,
chivalry towards women, respect for civilised person, and for
the Administrator are virtues of the Bhils for generations past.
So far as faithfulness and reliability go, no un-educated
Bhil has so far disappointed. If he is entrusted to take a certain
sum to a certain person, he will by all means faithfully carry

64

out the command. The educated Bhil, however, can not be
'relied upon; he will most certainly spend the entrusted sum
somewhere and somehow for himself and refuge in all sorts of
excuses in order to conceal the non-delivery of the money to a
third person.

In short, faithfulness and reliability disappear as quickly
as education advances. From time immemorial, the laws that
govern hospitability were irrefutable. If a guest arrives at the
house of the poorest man where absolutely no food is available,
the host will all the same inquire if his guest wants to share a
meal with him and the offered meal will be available, even it
means borrowing from the neighbours. The educated Bhils
who pretend that their smaller knowledge rendered them un-
approachable and dignified, does not feel inclined to extend
hospitability to visitors, at least not if the visitor is unedu-
cated. This change of one of the fundamental virtues of man is,
by the Bhils themselves, ascribed to the corrupting influence
of education; very little seems to be gained when instruction
results in the abandonment of friends and relations, only
because of the letter's lack of knowledge of the ABC.

In the eyes of the Bhil, the speaking of untruth is one of
the most despicable crimes. Whatever happened, the Bhil will
always give a most correct description, even if it is detrimen-
tal to himself. Even in case of homicide he has puzzled the
courts of law and justice. The uneducated Bhil always con-
fesses without restraint and his strong urge to speak the truth
is by no means diminished by the knowledge that punishment
may be hard. The slightly-polished Bhil behaves differently.
HeuseshisinsufTicientknowledgein such a way that any com-
mitment of his appears distorted in his favour; he hides and
conceals the truth with the express aim of sparing himself from
punishment. So the aborigin himself condemns any sort of
education, firmly believingthat the ability to read and to write
undermines tradition and custom and itis not astonishing thai-
he eyes with disfavour the influences exercised by towns. It is
likely that a good number of educated Bhils still abstain fVom
violating the laws of their clans, though they cannot escape the
sinister impression they create in the eyes of their uneducated
brethren by reading books of any kind.

The uneducated Bhil is always fond of his wife. The
wives are not unduly petted; they are well watched by their
husbands and tresspassing is certainly not allowed. Should

65

any woman supply proof to her husband that she is guilty of
unfaithfulness, in such a case punishment is dealt out in the
form of a good thrashing or, if it comes to that, he murders his
wife straight away. The educated Bhil abandoned drastic
means of this order (which is laudable) and he prefers to desert
his wife. To desert a wife is, however, according to Bhil's
tradition, an unpardonable act and aborigine resents his more
learned brethren's inclination to neglect whatever was consid-
ered good by his forefathers.

In justice to these Bhils who still honour tradition
despite the limited education that might possibly have turned
their minds, one must admit, that not every one misused his
contact with school in such a way that he necessarily had to
become a scoundrel. The primitive man does not know that
knowledge can easily be put to beneficial use and not knowing
what to do with knowledge he rather prefers to consider only
its bad aspects. Knowledge had no room within the framework
of his daily routine; knowledge was never desired, knowledge
was alien and superfluous and his antagonism is excusable.

Besides, very little use can be made of it when living in
the jungle. Knowledge, once acquired, may induce ayoungster
to leave his homestead; he might feel attracted by a more
eventful life in town and the danger exists that he will sever
relations with his own family and clan resulting in an es-
trangement that can never be bridged again. Nevertheless, he
has discovered that it is useful to go to school as it is a means
to ameliorate his financial position. To free himself from the
clutches of money-lenders is an art which he never understood,
though realising that it can be done, his antagonistic attitude
towards school and education may fade away and assist him
directly to better his plight. Once he Realises that he benefits
by the proper knowledge of prices, he will be able to check
shrewd money lenders and thus raise his standard of living,
desirable as such, provided he himself does not succumb to
corruption or spend his earnings on drink.

Aborigines in general and the Bhils in particular are
often blamed for excessive drinking habits. Freely drinking
forms an important item of the diet of nearly every Bhil and
nothing on earth exercises a greater lure on him than alcohol.
Knowing only too well that the intoxicating effect of liquor is
detrimental to his general well-being, an aborigine may in so
far be excused as drink is not always taken for the sake of
getting drunk. The Bhils distrust for any kind of modem

66

medicine, the remoteness of his village and the nen-availabil-
ity of medical aid whenever he is confronted v^th an emer-
gency, naturally lead him to believe that alcokol possesses the
properties of a good medicine able to cure alVkinds of diseases.
He fancies that liquor is the best antidote against fatigue and
that any kind of bodily sufferings are bound to vanish as soon
as he resorts to the bottle. He is furthermore convinced that al-
cohol makes the brave even braver and that he gains strength
for doing all kinds of things which he ordinarily would not
carry out.

In addition, alcohol is said to stimulate the appetite and
as the Bhil is rather fond of eating he does not want to miss a
chance and eat moderately for the good reason that he failed to
create a hunger-rising condition. Thus many good and whole
some properties are ascribed to alcohol and, besides, many ha
hob days, celebrations and even his religious rituals could
never properly be carried out without the flow of liquor.

Alcoholic drink is knowm from the earliest beginnings of
civilization. It is logical that any intoxicating liquid became,
even in earliest times, highly priced, inasmuch as its very
effect could not properly be explained. The desire to be coura-
geous, strong and healthy exists every where and no wonder
that aboriginal tribes cling much to it. Their lives are only
maintained by physical labour and any sign of drinking endur-
ance it taken as an indication of approaching age, increased
weakness and consequently a restriction of physical abilities.
If such indication can be counter-acted by a free intake of
alcohol, it may not be surprising that it is actually done.
Moreover, the life of primitive men is monotonous enough;
festivals may be frequent but they do not last for ever and even
the merriest ceremony does not decrease or mitigate the
necessity to return to the daily routine of hunting or killing.
Cinemas and stageplays are unknown in the jungle, there is no
distraction of any kind; alcohol is the only means of escape.

It must be admitted that the Bhils made and still make
to frequent and excessive use of this kind of salvation. It
constitutes, as amatteroffact,agreatdanger.Notthatalcohol
alone will cause untold harm to the physical well being of the
Bhils; hill-tribesmen are usually strong enough and hard-
work and continuous stay in the open air counter-balances ef-
fectively. The curse that accompanies drinking habits finds
expression in poverty and a low standard of having. The Bhils
can not claim that their standard of living is high in any way;

67

they are undescribably poor. The huts in which they live are of
most primitive pattern, devoid of anything that might give rise
to the belief that they should like to introduce a change for the
better. The intention to do so might exist in their subconscious-
ness, but being already poor, it is easier to spend the last rupee
on liquor than to attempt to purchase an object that might be
of some use somehow which, however, does not prove that one
must have it. Even a little drink causes sorrows to vanish; one
forgets the money-lender, his threats and vile tactics and being
seen in the liquor-shop is the centre of information, one meets
every body and particularly those whose state of mind is quite
similar.

It is interesting to note that those who acquired some
degree of liberty usually abstain from drinking or drink at
least very moderately. The little bit of education which they
call their own has at least liberated the sense of consciousness
and very much afraid to loose reputation, the literature Bhil
became able to exercise control over himself and his efforts
may in the long run influence a wider circle. The foundations
exist and many Bhils are quite prepared to become abstinent
if they only could. Prohibition should be introduced, but the
question remains open how and when the passionate longing
for alcohol will find some other outlet. Every suppression of one
craving, be it physical or mental, will help any other sup-
pressed urge to develop and to act as safely valve. It remains
to be seen in which way and to what extent the abstinent Bhil
is going to react and if he resorts to some other vice as a
compensation for the last. On the other hand, one must not
forget that alcohol is needed for ceremonial purposes with a
centuries old background. A prohibition would therefore be
rather out of place as it interferes too much with the mainte-
nance of social institution which forms, after all, the backbone
of primitive life. Liquor is needed at the time of sowing,
planting and harvesting; alcohol can not be dispensed with at
marriage ceremonies and it is as much indispensable when-
ever Death claims a Bhil. Alcohol is believed to influence and
to appease indirectly the gods and as nobody thrives well
without their blessings, it would be rather diflficult for anyone
to find a suitable substitute. A substitute could be found, but
it may not please the gods and if anything goes wrong in the
village, the tribesman will only fall back with increased vigour
and consume more alcohol. He will resort to illicit distillation

68

and take great pleasure in doing so. As nearly every effort has
so far failed to convince the average Bhil that medicines
supplied by dispensaries they are best possible means of
curing maladies, he will stick to his own method and in case he
fails to obtain alcohol in the open market, different method has
to be employed. Stills will be installed in every house. The
baghat or medicine-man cannot cure any body without alcohol,
through him liquor is effaced to the gods and it is plausible that
gods benevolent influences are entirely determined by and de-
pendent on the amount of alcohol offered. Any restriction the
fifee availability of liquor would therefore only result in an
enormous upheaval, spreading discontent and dissatisfaction.
The money saved through abstinence would be spent on other
vices and, besides the poor life of the aborigine would only
became poorer. As along as advanced races do not adhere
strictly to prohibition, they are morally not entitled to force
others to do what they themselves cannot do. Despite the
misuse, the Bhils should be given the option of deciding
themselves what is best for them. Their fondness of drink
keeps nevertheless the door open to advance and it is astonish-
ing why drink is really so dreadful a vice, steps were not taken
centuries age. The Bhils survived all the same and may it be
said again, they are in no way unhappier than any body else.
Moderation, and not Prohibition, are advisable.

Whatever has been said here with reference to drink
aims only at better understanding. Primitive man has to be
judged from a different angle and, more important even, he can
only then be condemned when he deliberately acts in such way
that his doing so really deserves to be classified as bad; as long
as the primitive does not himself have the impression that he
acts wrong, well in such a case, he is right. His ignorance does
not disqualify. Finally we have to take into consideration that
aborigines are proved to be very superstitious. The Bhils form
also exception; drink is linked with superstition and supersti-
tion is one of the foundations of their society.

Whoever has lived in hilly tracts where communication
is only possible by means of meandering footpaths, may have
noticed that hilltribes to either like to live in village like
settlements or in isolated houses dotted over the landscape.
Despite their sociable inclinations, the Bhils abstains from
forming any compact settlement; one prefers to live out of the
way in some lonely spot. Closely attracted and attached to
Nature, preference is given to a site where he can live abso-

ov

lutely unhampered by any conventions. Living at a distance
from the houses of his brethren appeals in so far to him as close
contract with neighbors in apt to lead to friction. The mainte-
nance of peaceful relations is of paramount importance; the
aborigine cannot afford to engage in perpetual quarrels that
might lead to the destruction of his own happiness or culmi-
nate in a clash. Life in the jungle is based on mutual assistance
and as such assistance can only too easily be forfeited, it is
decided upon to keep at a respectful distance. Unnecessary
gossip, the cause of much trouble, is thus avoided; every body
concentrates only on those events that happen within his own
circle and the neighbour is thus saved from unpleasant inter-
ference. In this respect townfolk have much to learn from the
Bhils. The town dweller's tendency to flock together and to
create a state of congestion is the source of untold friction and
inconvenience, though, unfortunately, the concentration of ac-
tivities in a town necessitates as well a concentration within a
certain radius of living space. The Bhils do not have to face
such an evil. Agricultural occupation and the location of fields
rather encourage decentralization. This attitute is even car-
ried further. If a Bhil happens so have 4 sons of marriageable
age, he will build for each one of them a hut at a spot distinctly
separated from the others. Each son is given a gift in form of
cattle, fowls and some primitive implements and he will
henceforth live in his own little world, quite apart from father
and brothers. Family ties and personal affection do not suffer
herewith; a visitxan quickly be paid and after an exchange of
opinions eve'ryone returns to his homely abode.

The huts are of a primitive pattern. Bamboo and mud are
used as building material, but the huts are constructed in such
a way that fresh air is permitted to circulate freely. The latter
seldom takes place in a town-house. The Bhils attach great
importance to fresh air and it is certainly due to this circum-
stance that the general state of health is superior to that
prevailing in congested areas. The Bhils preference to light
structures had many good reasons. Very thrifty by nature, the
Bhils likes to change his habitations as often as he can which
could not easily be undertaken in the case of stone buildings.
A light hut is easily demolished and easily erected; it does not
involve any outlay in form of costly building material. He does
not feel prevented to realize a sudden craving for a change of
site and climate and the ease with which his few belongings
can be moved remains an inexhaustible source of happiness.

70

Problems do not exist; contracts must not be cancelled. The
new departure means a new life and access to new hunting
grounds. It becomes thus evident that primitiveness offers a
large margin of freedom and it is not uncertain that the
aborigine is more than wise by clinging to his freedom even at
the cost of being considered a "wild man".

Despite the fact that the Bhils are so jealous of their
personal freedom, they never attempted to counter-act the
baghat's endeavour to render the Bhils slaves of his influence.
The medicine-man's word counts every where, he is the ruler
and dictator and those who disobeyed his instructions were
soon taught that such high handedness has to be punished.
The Baghatis the intermediary between the gods and the Bhils
and superstitious to the highest degree, no Bhil dares to
contradict. The Baghat blesses the field he assists at ceremo-
nies, he helps departed souls on their way to heaven and, more
important even, he is able to detect witches and know how
their evil activities can be checked. Of course, the existance of
a Baghat is by no means a compliment which one could extend
to the Bhils; a sorcerer of his calibre is positively an anomaly
and a sign of great backwardness.

Nobody has already been more attacked than the Baghat,
his prestige, however, remains unshaken thanks to his own
cleverness. Those who strive to curtail his powers, soon relapse
into indifference out of sheer fear that the Baghat may indeed
be in constant touch with gods or sinister spirits and heap mis-
fortune on their shoulders. On the other hand the dead would
run the risk of missing heaven, fatal to the dead and fatal to
those who survive.

It can not be said that the very existance of a baghat and
the freedom with which he exercises his powers denote that
Bhils are particularly primitive. The medicine-man is an
ageold institution, known all over the world and it is thus not
surprising that the Bhils rely on him at least as much as others
do. Moreover, it is the privilege of the aborigines to employ
Baghats without whom the tribe could not have developed his
characteristic attitude towards life.

The Baghats activities only become objectionable when
they are linked with wilful exploitation or result in loss of life
and prosperity. Loss of life was often enough caused by Baghats
who specialize in the detection of witches. Once a woman has
been declared a witch she may by sheer luck escape torture but

71

many so called witches were not able to remove the spell from
the body of a sick person and unreservedly perished on the in-
stigation of the Baghats.

Advanced races have since long discarded witch doctors,
substituting them by charlatans of any kind. This may be
explained by man's desire to probe the mystical. By not making
use of moral remedies, he likes to entrust those who claim
supernatural powers and as every body hopes to escape from
the unavoidable medicine-men and their colleagues are per-
mitted to flourish. The Bhils are thus not much worse than civ-
ilised people.

A recent dealing with the many fold changes that came
into being in the course of the last two decades, special
attention was drawn to the Bhils who, like many other aborigi-
nes, develop a likingfor western dress. It was stated that coats,
long pants and hats are increasingly worn. Being decently
attired certainly helps the wearer to look respectable in a way,
though it is rather doubtful if the adoption of an alien form of
dress is really desirable. In the first instance, it does really not
fit into the landscape; the Bhil who derives his livelihood from
agriculture does not need modern attire. It would only prevent
him from movingfreely and, besides, to consider himself better
than the common lot, will have no beneficial influence on him
nor on another. A simple mind becomes easily influenced and
a pair of fashionable trousers is enough to make a man of his
kind conceited. Coat and trousers prevent him from doing his
regular work and once he has taken to wearing western
clothes, he will not easily abandon such out of-the-place habits
for fear that the newly acquired dignity will leave him as soon
as his babu attire is removed. Personal discomfort counts little
or is bravely endured. When combined with a certain degree of
literacy, the new habit may easily develop into a profound
alienation. Those members of his clan who still wear the
regular jungle-outfit are forced to feel inferior whilst the dandy
is apt to nourish feelings of superiority. No more able and
willing to attend to the work and daily routine of the village,
the modem young savage feels attracted by petty jobs in
nearby towns and beizaars, provided, ~of course, that such kind
of work still permits him to wear a coat and possibly a tie. The
meager education he had regulates naturally his income and
not being able to make the two ends meet, the young darrdy has
to resort to all kinds of uses and instead of being a help to his
own community he is led to become a traitor. Grain dealers and

72

merchants might avail themselves of his influence in the
villages and induce him to act as a middle man not with the aim
to assisthim on his way to success, but with the intention to get
a better and more ruthless hold of the villagers. The simple
minded tiller of the soil will with little doubt accept the
recommendations of some urbanised member of the clan and
blindly believe in his suggestion. In case the bania desires to
purchase a certain produce at a low rate, it is only necessary to
send his special envoy to the villagers with the order to spread
news beneficial to the dealer though utterly detrimental to the
cultivator. A triflfling commission may be paid to the modern-
ized son of the soil, just enough to buy a new coat which, again,
is a further step to the complete break with tradition

Customs & Manners

It is, of course, not wanted that aborigines never acquire
the habit of dressing themselves properly, though-properly-
means that the national Dress privilege in the district should
be preferred. A clean dhoti is certainly an esthtic garment, it
is adapted to climatical conditions, comfortable and not too
expensive. A national dress fosters in addition national feel-
ings, whilst western dress can be left to those who is by
necessity had to adopt such apparel at a time when their mind
and character was already firmly moulded.

The Bhils resort at present to a loin-cloth. A loin-cloth
has many advantages: cheapness is the most important. Apart
from easy availability, it is a most fitting garment for those
who have to spend their lives in hospitable forests where
physical work and hunt constitute th e main sources of income.
A loin-cloth, however, covers the body only to the barest
minimum and despite its efficiency as a work-outfit, the loin-
cloth gives the poor man an even poorer appearance and his
chances decrease rapidly whenever he has to come in contact
with people who do not look with favour at aborigines kind of
dress. It is therefore advisable that as primitive tribes increase
they should strictly keep aloof from western styles. Neverthe-
less, even if aborigines prefer to wear a loin-cloth only, they
have reason to do so. They themselves feel properly attired
and, as long as this conviction is not shaken , it is better to allow
every one of them to suite his own convenience. The whole
question.of dress is, admittedly, merely a matter of traditiop
and prejudice and happy are those who do not face th« neces-
sity of making all kinds of concessions only for the take of
respectability.

73

After having so much said in favour of the Bhils, one
should turn to the most fundamental order that governs the
life of every man. Marriage and marriage customs are of great
importance every where; many nations have succeeded in
simplifying the matter, others incorporated a tremendous
amount of complicating ritual, particularly here is India. Ne-
gotiations have to be launched, horoscopes are to be consulted,
gods mustbe invoked and only little attention is paid to the real
aim of marriage. As long as the dowry offered is considered
acceptable, the bride necessarily becomes acceptable to the
same degree and it matters relatively little if and how the
parties concerned derive any satisfaction and happiness from
such arrangements. Bride and bridegroom hardly meet per-
sonally before marriage and whenever they meet refuge is
taken to hypocrisy and pretension by means of which both
partners enter the matrimonial bond with wrong ideas about
each other. Every body concerned hopes that things can be
settled after marriage and as things seldom settle as expected,
untold unhappiness results, matters did not become easier
with the advance of civilization and it is worthwhile to inquire
how the primitive man tries to tackle the problem. Marriage
remains a problem even in backward communities though less
puzzling as every body relies on a tradition that leaves little
space for complications and besides, every body knows what
can be expected. The Bhils, for instance do not require any
young maiden to possess knowledge which can not profitably
be employed. As a good house-wife and coworker, the Bhil
woman exclusively concentrates on tasks connected with such
duties; she knows the limit of her capacities and she is there-
fore quite free from inhibitions or wrong ideas. Husband and
wife know the little world in which they live smd discard from
the very beginning any ambitions that might possibly upset
the equilibrium of the household. She knows that her husband
is fond of alcohol, but nothing prevents her from taking a sip
her self and, so for as the children are concerned they are at an
early age offered the chance of getting acquainted with the
taste of liquor and there is none in the whole family who could
possibly condemn the others. Moreover, both partners know
well the financial potentialities of their holding and a Bhil
woman will therefore never abandon herself to longings for
objects which cannot in the normal way be acquired. In this
respect they differ greatly from their sisters in towns.
Townpp-ople often fail to abstain from maintaining a sober out-

74

look; the Tnarriage settlement is spiced with vague promises
are permitted to rely on assurance that is seldom realised
which nevertheless instill in their minds the desire to brave for
the unaccessable. The Bhils approach matrimony from a
different angle, they know life means hard work, occasionally
interrupted by a holiday.

However, the human element is not absent. Mutual love
brings both partners together and the alliance convenable
comes most seldom into working. No partner is forced on siny
body. Of course, the parents still like to arrange a match, but
the boy as well as the girl are at liberty to refuse without
causing any offence. As a rule, the boy courts the girl and
marriage takes place as soon as they discover that their love is
profound enough. Any widow stands a fair chance to marry
again. In cases where parents or relatives object, the young
man and woman simply run away and such an act is enough to
declare them properly married. In extreme case the gird has to
be kidnapped and provided the girl is in love, the use offeree
sanctions the deed and elopement is followed by recognition.
Many girls merely join their lovers by going to houses. This is
indication enough that they wish to live together and the union
becomes legally sanctified.

Alike every whete in the world, the Bhils often decide to
run away with the wives of a neighbour. No body can prevent
a man to elope any married woman with her consent; but the
escaped is usually followed by a sequel based on clan traditions
in order to assure that a certain compensation is paid to the
deserted husband. The compensation depends on the age of the
run-away wife, the amount which her first husband had to pay
to her father at the time of her first marriage and the prepar-
edness of the first husband to part with his wife. The settling
of the zagada requires a lot of bargaining. The whole procedure
is to some extent flattering to the unfaithful female. Sums as
thousand rupees are asked for her release, but, usually her
value sinks during the bargaining operations and she discov-
ers that her second husband purchased her for the bare sum of
200 rupees. This, however, is natural course of events and she
still remains recognised as a valuable acquisition. The social
status of any woman of her kind remains unaffected. The
payment of a compensation legalizes and sanctions (according
to the laws of the clan) her transfer from one husband to
fan other. Moreover, the procedure accompanying the action
culminates in a feast. The judges, the parting and the newly

75

united parties, some members of their clans and good friends
join merrily the trouble-makers with the firm intention to
forget the past with the help of some liquor. The newly wedded
are presented with gifts and the new departure is made easy
by the conviction that every thing is all right and in strict ac-
cordance with the law and custom of the tribe Disturbing
gossip is hereby eliminated. Any reason to feel guilty or
ashamed fades away in to oblivion, whilst the structure of the
tribal society was kept in tact.

The Zagada system, though condemned by many observ-
ers, incorporates one important advantage: a peaceful settle-
ment avoiding blood-shed. To a good number of Bhils now
violence is not acceptable and refuge is often to drastic meas-
ures resulting in loss of life. The unfaithful wife of the seducer
runs the risk of being either beaten or murdered in extreme
cases. Any union of a man with the wife of another man fails
to become sanctioned by the tribe's law in case compensation
is refused and the female degrades herself to the status of a
concubine. As the keeping of concubines is, however, an age-
old institution, the woman is nevertheless able to enjoy all the
animates which her tribe can offer, in as much as the Bhils
recognise the necessity of satisfying sexual urges by adoption
of any accessible means and concubines are therefore spared
from any humiliating attacks as her functions difFrv, in prin-
ciple, little from those of a legally married woman.

Pre-nuptial intercourses widely spread. The general
atmosphere of same contact with nature created no abhor-
rence for exmarital relations despite the fact that it is well
known that this state of affairs is not desirable as such.
Damage is usually prepared by inviting the trespassers in a
legallized union and no blame falls on a child bom soon after
the marriage ceremoney. Illegitimate off spring enjoy the same
status as any legitimate .child and prejudices, so often con-
nected with illegitimacy are either unknown or deliberately
ignored.

A great number of songs demonstrate even that there is
nothing objectionable in havingpre-nuptial intercourse with a
girl. Many love-songs concentrate on the subject, mentally
describing that things could nothappen differently as the girl,
waylaid by her lover, simply could not resist his entreaties.
Remote and silent valleys, a cluster of trees with under growth
or the protected slope of a hill are pictured as a ideal meeting
places. The poets of the Bhils love to see the heroine made

76

pregnant, though matters are mitigated by the birth of a son.
Love escapades are (at least in songs) seldom rewarded by the
birth of a daughter, whilst a son greatly changes the sitviation.

All goes well if it is a matter of mutual love. Unfortu-
nately, rape is not too uncommon and it is regrettable that girls
under age fall into the category of those who are most easily
victimised. The Bhils themselves consider rape a condemnable
crime and evildoers are without exception handed over to the
police, which, in itself, is indication enough that nothing vile or
extra-ordinary is attached to prenuptial intercourse, whilst
any attempts to molest a child-girl are taken at face-value as
unpardonable mischief.

It is rather typical that the aborigines attitude towards
any kind of problem appertaining to the question of ser and
marriage is more healthy and normal than that of civilized
individuals. Personal liberty (provided excessive liberty does
not result in crime) are the proof around which life rotates and
should personal liberty and real happiness benefit by it mar-
riage as such could be abolished. Many Bhils, for instance,
have clamoured for its destruction, but they have not shown a
more excellent way, whilst a greater number defend this
immemorial institution. Marriage is believed sacred and in-
dispensable to social order, necessary in the interest of chil-
dren, but, it results too often in failure and, in actual fact,
develops often in a hell of torment. Without marriage human-
ity would perhaps have to suffer more and accepting marriage
as an institution, the primitive egotism of nature's mighty
urge has partly to be subdued. The aborigine, deprived of easy
access to the great World, become, by nature, more profoundly
and exclusively emotional and he takes consequently sexmat-
ters at once as a concession and a demand, to be shaped
accordingly to his own world and outlook. He does not ponder
eventual terrifying anxiety or perplexity adaptinghis life (and
that of his female partner) to the same subject which appears
to both with approximately equal force. Sexual activity, in
every from this very angle that we have to judge the primitive
man; his edifice, however balanced, offers him the shelter he
desires, and it never dawns upon him that he is not enlight-
ened.

It is not true that the backward tribesman is incapable
of seeing the difference between sheer impulse and preserva-
tion; he always remains within his own sphere. He prefers to

77

be nonnal and. whatever suits him best is adopted without
remorse.

Aesthetic values and personal inclinations determine
the choice of the partner, the girls must be able to boast of hair
as smooth as the skin of a snake, her walk must be graceful, the
forehead must not be flat, so may her nose ressemble a flower
volumenous buttocks, flat feet and big ears disqualify; desir-
able. Any young girl with hair on chest and back is declared
able to develop. Lop virtues; white teeth and the absence of
gossipy inclinations are as well favourable assets.

It is believed that a girl becomes particularly passionate
when she indulges into sexual intercourse before reaching
puberty. The experience of the jungle further taught that it is
wiser to provide as soon as possible a husband for the girl or,
failing to do so, she turns mad with desire. In such a state it is
difficult to pacify her passion, she might even become a menace
to the village and compel the very next male to devote attention
to her or she dies of madness.

It becomes apparent that the Bhils do not believe in
restraint and it can rally not be said that animal passion plays
an important part in his life. The desolate and isolated region
in which they live, and the close contact with the nature
around merely fosters a straight forward attitude. Erotic
pleasures are the only available distraction. After the days toil
fires are lit, men and women of every age and description
assemble, in order to start with the popular nocturnal dance
round the fire, enlivened by obscene songs, movements and
gesture everyone of which exclusively represents an erotic
provocation. Demonstrations of this kind, surpassing the
borderline of decency, find, thanks to the vulgar note, an echo
in the primitive soul, sweeping inhibitions away and resulting
in an alarmingly high degree of debauchery. The effect of the
flickering flames of the fire, combines lewdness of exciting
songs, is traditionally accompanied by liquor and it is really
not surprising that such lusty assemblies culminate in events
which, with some restrain, could have been avoided. Every one
is caught by the desire to kidnap, to elope or to rape, thought
not too much attention is paid to it. The inability to stem the
natural course of events is recognised and well-known and,
every body admits, the provocation was planned by organised
mass-action which, in its turn, naturally has to result in
massdebauchery. It is of course regretted by many Bhils that
established family-ties can so easily be loosened as a result of

78

their dancing parties, but nothing is done that might possibly
eradicate the evil.

The practice as such teaches very little that could be
accepted by more advanced groups and it must be kept in mind
that it is the main aim of this treating to illustrate that
mankind derives only to a certain extentbenefit from conven-
tion, on the one hand ample proof extent thatlack of strangling
convertions exercise a loosening effect on the moral attitud of
clans or even whole nations.

It is often said primitive tribes can only advance after
being acquainted with certain fixed moral standards. There is
little doubt that much could not done in that direction, but it
still remains to be questioned if the introduction, of moral
standards so for alien to the primitive man really results in an
increase of personal happiness. The latter counts so much in
our life, is so easily jeopardised and so difficult to regain. In the
case of the Bhils it can be said that only few members really
desire a change, the majority is firmly convinced that a change
is not at all necessary and it is therefore very doubtfiil if the
Bhils will ever feel more contented after being more or less
forced to adopt standards that might mean much to others,
offering however, little to themselves. The subject has to be
handled with great delicacy; and primitive man who has the
impression that his customs are threatened is prone to adopt
an antagonistic attitude which induces him, for the sake of the
maintenance of his personal habits and inclinations, to retire
to more remote corners ofhisjungle kingdom where an unham-
pered indulgence into old-established tribal life can be carried
out.

Uplift work has been carried out and attempts are begin
made to teach reading and writing. A man who knows to read
well might be an ornament to the village and his ability to
interpret the news of the daily papers might possibly stimulate
others to follow his example. Literacy means as well that the
obscure accounts of money lenders can easier be chequed
which, in return, lead to increased prosperity of the village
population. Such an advantage is required by the Bhils, but
little could so far be achieved in the field of tribal custom. The
easy way of living remains the foundation of the village society
and, should it be possible to pay less to the creditor, the savings
are by preference used to cover expences pertaining boastfully
staged celebrations which, in conformity with the degree of
opulence, result and are desired to result in a fall and abso-

79

lutely unrestricted outburst of gaity crowned by a general
relaxation of any moral barriers. A Bachande spiced with
erotic provocation, constitutes the climax of the primitive
man's life. Even the literature is unable to resist non-partici-
pation would earn him the reputation or being either conceited
or even important and as nobody likes to see these attributes
connected with his name, barriers are bound to fall easily. The
great tenacity with which the Bhils stick to established insti-
tutions is demonstrated by his reluctance to ease believing in
witchcraft. The community is ruled by the witch-doctor who,
thanks to his good relations with gods and demons, is consid-
ered the only being who can avoid disaster. The witch-doctor's
efficiency depends, naturally, on the remuneration offered to
him, though a goat or some fowl are considered not too shabby
a payment. Alcohol increases the Baghats power to summon
the invisible rulers of this world; in extreme cases hefeels alike
to detect the source of any calamity and (in common with many
witch-doctors acting all over the world) mystic currents draw
him to the witch. Witches are supposed to maintain mischievi-
ous intercourse with demons and the devil in particular,
though she can save her good name by admitting that she is the
witch who caused illness in the neighbours house. The witch,
after many entreaties, forcibly agrees to drive the ghastly spell
away by performances near the bed of the affected, sick person.
She might become a great celebrity in the districts provided, of
course, that the spell is removed and the neighbour's health is
restored; failure to do so has torture and death in its trail
Exposed to unsurpassable brutality, the witch life is slowly but
painfully extinguished, whilst glamour, fame presents are
kept in store for those more fortunate witches who, helped by
Nature, luckily escaped from a rather unpleasant treatment.
The very fact that the authorities had to take the most severe
steps in order to impress he Bhils that belief in witches is more
than vain, proves that it is not easy to interfere with tribal
custom. The torture of witches is now prohibited, nevertheless
every Bhil will probably never cease to do so. The witch-
doctor's powers remain unrestricted; his medicines obtainable
at Government dispensaries and it is quite likely that witches
are still tortured and killed without the knowledge of the au-
thorities. Government's decision was certainly right on hu-
manitarian reasons, in new order. In the first instance they
hold on to the conviction that witches exist and, secondly, by

80

not being able to accuse a witch, the latter can not be induced
to cure a sick person or animal and death is bound to result.
Moreover, the very knowledge that is legally not possible ex-
terminable witches by torture, resulted in the apprehension
that many more women might feel inclined to overcome sur-
plus and to become witches instead. As witches are now
protected by law, witchdom is made easy and attractive and
the Bhils feel that they run the grave risk of being overpowered
by many fold sinister influences. Nobody can understand why
it suddenly became necessary to break with tradition. Whilst
a number of women is spared from unjust attack, the whole
tribe undergoes pangs of fear and the innovation is far away
from being applauded. Thus the new law, imported from the
civilised world, failed to contribute to the personal happiness
of the Bhils and I am afraid, the influence of the civilized world
will becgme more and more persistent in the course of time and
it is worth while to watch the effects. Superstition is frame-
work of daily tasks. Apart from agriculture, hunting is one of
the major occupations. Not only that hunting appeals to man
in general; it is one of the source from which his livelihood is
derived. A successful hunt provides meal for the whole family
and it is logical that many precautions must be taken in order
to ensure success. A favourable moment has to be awaited for
the start; the early morning hours and late in the evening are
considered particularly favourable, inasmuch as the risk of
meeting people on the road is largely deminished at such a
moment. By no means must the hunter betray that he intends
to kill game and nothingis more harmful than a question posed
to him duringhis wanderings through the forest. Any question
means bad luck, though he can remove the evil effects by
throwing a stone in the direction of the questioner. It is,
however, much wiser to resort to a more thorough methods and
the spell case on his weapon is nullified by winding small
branches of a wild plum tree around his hunting parapherna-
lia. The bow is then placed under some stones over which the
hunter has to step. This procedure, when carried out with care
and concentration, pacifies the demons. Great silence must
reign and nothingis more unfortunate than the noise produced
by the ears when a dog violently shakes his head; worse even
if a deer manages to escape. The sight of a fox makes it clear to
the shikari that it is futile to continue in his search for game.
Matters are quite different in case the hunters happen to meet
a pregnant women. As a matter of fact, the hunter can not ask

Kolhi houses

Song and dance

^•i^P^^, r^r:,^^^

■^$fiilW^^'^>-'fr-^*''^^^A

4^ fl| jsu^

A Kolhi farmer family at work

-A Kolhi mother and child with their camel

81

for a more auspicious omen, particularly if the woman carries
ajar filled with water on her head. Tikur and Lawi birds have
the power to impart success to hunters enterprise, but every
thing is bound to go wrong after the crowing of the pingale bird
could be heard from a distance.

In desperate case the blessings of the witch-doctor are
sought who, in exchange of appropriate renumeration, gently
sommons the gods of the forest. The observation of all these
precautions is hardly necessary on the day following the 14th'
of January. It is the proverbial lucky day for every hunter and
one way unpunished indulge into a slightly indifferent atti-
tude towards the other wise golden rules for hunt.

Cultural Identity

It would be a matter of great difficulty to teach the Bhils
that phenomena as described have little to do with success or
failure of a hunt. Of course the escape of a smabhar is an
exasperating experience and every hunter will describe the
event as unfortunate. In the eyes of the primitive man happen-
ings of this kind become unlucky and once dis-appointed and
nervous due to failure, the hunter's steadiness and keenness is
easily effected and more failures are consequently not ex-
cluded. The desire not to be questioned when outsetting for a
hunt is explicable. The hunter feels inclined to boast that he
intends to shoot so many pieces of game, whilst it might easily
happen that he shoots nothing at all. His reputation as a
hunter is thus exposed to criticism and ridicule and he prefers
not to be questioned in advance. There is always time and op-
portunity enough to boast after the sambhar has been killed.

Light hunted, swifl and active and fond of excitement,
the Bhils possess good qualities as hunters, killing with arrow
and bow every kind of creature that can possibly be killed
without the use of fireweapons, steady work is loathed, it
seems much more profitable to roam about, to collect some
honey, grass or fuel to supplement eventual meagre results of
the shikar. At particularly critical moments help is offered to
bigger landlords and the few annas gained are enough to carrj'
on for the moment. The daily diet consists of milk bread, curds,
vegetables, fish and occasionally a mouthful of flesh. All these
items are produced either by themselves or theirlittleholdings
or the forest supplies whatever may be lacking. Roofs and
fruits grow profusely throughout the jungle. The sacrificial
slaughter of Buffaloes is the crowning event of the year; on

82

such an occasion large quantities of meat are eaten. The Bhil
does in principle not object to eating the flesh of cOws and his
want of reverence for the life of these animals placed him
rather low among Hindus, though touch does not defile. Sev-
eral tribes abstain from eating beef, but all of them believe in
demoniacal influences, witchrafl and omens. Their religion is
one of fear and it is therefore quite natural that their whole
pattern of life was and is in consequence shaped by fear and
superstition. Orgies, feasts and bachnales are the natural
means of escape. A prayer uttered on one of the consecrated
stones offers mental calm and satisfaction to those who do not
participate in worldly orgies. A few reverence holy trees or
believe in the assistance of an enchanted horse or dog.

Nature provided a fitting setting for this extraordinary
kind of life. The luxuriant jungle with her ever green coat of
foliage, undulating and rising to lofly hights, forms indeed the
most suitable background in which the cultural life of the Bhils
could develop. Rustling trees the calm of dale, the gentle roar
of a waterfall and the mani-fold strange voices of the forest
exercise an eloquent appeal pleasing to the casual traveller,
but immensely laden \vith significance and meaning to the
primitive son of the forest. The guarted tree, growing in
solitude on the summit of a mound literally invites the pre-
sumption that the huge stem ever served as an abode of some
powerful spirit, whilst the slight animation of the foliage,
stirred by the evening breeze, logically indicates pleasure or
displeasure of the demon and is it not natural that Gods prefer
to dwell near running water, ever ready to listen to the playful
sound of the waves? Strange meanings are attributed to
strangely shaped shrubs which, when covered with blossoms,
exercise alluring influences or what shall the Bhil think of the
solitary giantboulder found on slope?They are manifestations
of an almighty power, beyond reach, and worthy to be wor-
shipped. Why should the strange cry of a bird not be taken as
an indication of warning to abstain from approaching a silent
valley where apparently, witches confer with the devil and his
helpmates? Not listening to the warning spells disaster, but
where lied the boundary within which the devil agitates
sinister forces? The witch-doctor, the only man able to extract
the proper meaning from strange phenomena, has, by neces-
sity to be consulted and nothing would be more dangerous and
provocative then not to sacrifice a goat on a certain day. Town
officials, sent from far away to the judge wilderness, have good

83

talking, though what do they actually know? Not initiated will
be secrets and love of the forest, they represent, from the point
of view of the primitive man, a heretical menace. The jungle
dweller does not want to get acquainted with civilization alien
to his beliefs; he might appreciate his son's ability to write and
to read and to settle his accounts with the bania, but this is all
what is actually wanted. This very life established in its
present form and shape for thousands of years, seems to him
so utterly perfect and regular and what does poverty matter to
him. Of course, an increase of his income does not meet with
any objection, but money is easily spent. The whole matter
would interest the primitive man provided it is possible to as-
certain that his gods, demons and spirits fall into line and
adopt themselves to the new situation. Is there any guarantee
that witches are going to lose the power to trouble the village
or will they at least become more docile and less aggressive?
Who can prove that the witch-doctor is wrong? Hardly any
body is so far willing to believe in the curative properties of
modem drugs available at the dispensary; the recovery of a
sick person is still ascribed to the good influences of gods who,
despite the intake of outlandish medicines, benevolently par-
doned those who temporarily lost faith. In the case of death
blame is thrown on medicines, obtained from outside and the
baghats position is only strengthened.

The Bhils cling to tradition as much as more advanced
communities do and it would indeed be a great mistake to
pronounce a verdict in their disfavour. No doubt, they are very
backward, but in many instances the backwardness itself
contributed to their well-being and happiness to such an
extent that one feels really inclined to ponder over the merits
of this kind of life. Natural in acting and thinking, straight
forward in expression, th e Bhils posses perhaps the key to hap-
piness. Anything that makes life complicated is avoided and
ambitions do not exist. Every body follows the one and only
Rath personal happiness and satisfaction. The mean s of reach-
ing the goal may be crude, though they are crude only in the
eyes of those who want to reform. Dri the other hand, nobody
outside anyone of the tried can be forced to adopt anything that
is acceptable to the Bhils only, but we should not fail to
appreciate that the primitive culture of the Bhils is extremely
rich though not acceptable to the civilised world. The whole
structure of civilised life would collapse if any one of those
institutions preferred by the Bhils were introduced, the up-

84

heavel would attain dimensions of unforeseen magnitude,
without speaking of the many obstacles that have to be over-
come. From a certain point of view, it is regretable that
civilized groups are already to such an extent entangled in
strangling conventions that personal liberty and happiness
became more and more unknown. If it would be possible to
change our attitude without causinglastingharm, one should
try to do so, abstain, however, from importing new ideas from
Utopia and fall instead back on the flow of energy still circulat-
ing in districts which we are pleased to describe as backward.
The Bhils are foolish in many ways and they do not deserve to
be imitated, but as they are positively happier than any
civilised person, one should not entirely discard the possibility
to make use of the few good ideas which they can offer and cor-
rect, as the same time, the mischief that the Bhils are just one
of those wild tribes whose name alone ough t to be taboo; official
literature has little sympathy for the Bhils: they are described
as lazy, ignorant cattle-lifters and robbers, concentrating
occasionally on agriculture out of the sheer necessity to fill
their stomachs. Every society is well supplied with a good
number of rowdies, but this does not indicate that every one is
a gangster. Many Bhils are most charming people, hospitable,
sincere and ready to please and it is utterly regretable that
they are prepared to resist the claims of money-lenders and
grain dealers who discovered that the Bhils are an easy prey.
Incapable to appreciate material profits, they fostered them-
selves the belief that the every Bhil is endowed with a great
deal of stupidity which, as a matter of fact, is not the case.
Simple and inoffensive in their outlook, they are inclined to
take everything for granted, only in order not to disturb the
peace of their lives.

It is not exactly known how many Bhils actually live in
the various parts of India. An accurate census is in so far made
difficult as the name Bhil is often given to wild or half wild
tribes. The hilly tracts of the Bombay presidency are consid-
ered to be the original home, from which many clans spread in
all directions, even as far as the plains of Gujarat and the
Northern Deccan. Bhils can even be met in Rajputana and
Sind; the migration to the latter districts, so contrary in
climate to the original home, is probably based on necessity.
Famine and an increase of difficulties drove the dweller of the
forests into the scorched plains of northern India where land
was available.

85

It is generally presumed that Bhils occupied once an
honorable position. Some of their kings ruled over wide coun-
tries and exercised great power, but opposed to the advancing
tide of Aryan conquest in primitive times, the opposing Bhils
were unable to stern the invaders who gradually succeeded to
push the Bhils back to the fastnesses of mountains andforests
which they eventually occupied. As a race they were feared and
hated and it is not surprising thatthe contemporary chronicler
felt great reluctance to mention the Bhils in his scripts where
the history of a fierce uncivilised, conquered or fallen race was
not considered a subject sufficiently attractive to adorn the
annals of more advanced races. Only on few occasions are they
contemptuously spoken off as an illegitimate people. The
Bhils, however, were not too much pleased by this kind of
treatment and retaliated by invasions of the plain country,
reestablishing their contact with dominant races (Rajputs),
though their strongholds it is said could mostly be found only
among the Bhils and in the forests where greater security and
better means of defence were offered by nature.

Some of the neighbouring races finally overcame their
reluctance and prejudices and intermarried with the Bhils,
though this admixture of races was never considered particu-
larly recommendable, in as much as the proud Rajput families
carefully tried to avoid the introduction ofany foreign element,
whilst the Bhils showed a certain anxiety to prove that Rajput
blood is, at least partly, circulating in their veins. Moreover,
the Rajputs attitude is excusable; the very fact that an admix-
ture of fair coloured races with member of less fortunate dark
races usually results in particularly dark offspring, proves
that some kind ofacolourbar existed already in ancient times.
Those Bhils who had intermarried with Rajputs etc., devel-
oped, in their turn, a high degree of snobbishness which led
finally to a distinctions among the Bhils. New classes, clans,
tribes and sub-tribes sprang into existence, forming the nu-
cleus of the present order. No wonder that the Bhils differ, in
their outer appearance, so much from each other. Small, light
limbed, fair and active men form a contrast with stunted wild
woodmen with African features who are again classified worlds
apart from the well made, tall and handsome members of
certain tribes. Itishowever, typical thatthesamekindofdress
is in favour with all the various tribes; the loin cloth is
universal A bracelet, necklace and a pair of earrings are the

86

ornaments worn though gold is seldom represented. The Bhils
are too poor to afford costly ornaments, silver and brass
became fashionable. Strings of glass and stone beads were
liked since time immemorial and are still in great favour to-
day. A few glass-bangles, cheap but colourful, are a sign of
enviable prosperity. The village belle wears sometimes a
nosering, though this type of ornament is classified as extreme
luxury and denotes a high degree of extravagance. The turban
is an indispensable requisite of every man; the women favour
embroidered bodies, completed by a never too clean a sary.

The dialects spoken are innumerable. Every village has
its own dialect, every hamlet boasts of some kind of a slang not
understood in places some miles away. Occasionally one comes
across some strange form of speech which seems to point to an
original language now lost. The Bhils never developed a
written language of their own; if anything has to be recorded
refuge is taken to a script resembling Gujarati, Marathi or
Hindi, according to the fluctuating nature of the dialects spo-
ken in the very district.

Little is known about the exact number of tribe and
clans. The Bhils are almost, in conformity with Hindu custom,
very fond of dividing themselves in innumerable clans and
groups, though the differentiation does not equal the proper
Hindu caste system. It is difficult to explain why the Bhils took
to so great fondness of dividing every group into countless sub-
groups; the historians, at least, mention that such a system
was not known among the Bhils of ancient days. A strain of
foreign blood, miscellaneous origin, the father's name, a fa-
vourite settlement or occupation, private pursuits and mem-
bership of to — temistic organizations support the view that
many reasons existed and inspired the early Bhils to separate
and differentiate. Those who eat beef have, naturally, to form
a different group, the tribes concentrating on hunting keep
aloof from cultivators, whilst customary differences in wor-
ship, dress, the habits of eating or preparing food, alone are
inducement enough to create certain distinctions. Rituals,
ceremonies and festivals are an additional cause; the pure and
impure cannot mix on such occasions. Untouchability, how-
ever, is hardly known. Members of the many fold clans inter-
dine, but certain restrictions are imposed on inter-marriage.

During the long centuries of decline, the spirit of the
Bhils was only partly broken. Poverty, laziness and the loss of

87

power of resistance have hastened the down fall; original tribal
life, however, remained strong. The Bhils are not degenerate
nor do they foster misanthropic inclinations and it is quite pos-
sible that customs may undergo a revival which, when to some
extent modernized, able to contribute to the uplift of the whole
community.

Folk Lore & Folk Songs

Folk-songs, another expression of tribal culture, vividly
portray the mental out-look. So far as the songs of the Bhils are
concerned, dance, pleasure, love-making and sexual indul-
gence usually form the background; events of domestic impor-
tance and, occasionally, the life-stories of national heros lend
themselves to romantic interpretations. Whatever may be de-
scribed in songs, the Bhils never venture outside their own
sphere of living; the forest, the dense jungle, some tree or a
colourful flower are chosen as the scene or the object of their
song, by which means the strong preference to their own
national locality is stressed. A few extracts may serve as an
indication and illustration. The root of an old karanji tree
contains a well - like cavity in which a Fir-tree was pilanted
(probably by a god). The young Fir tree benefited by the
abundance of water and grew therefore well; swinging (in the
breeze) from left to richt iust in the same fashion as a king
sways gently when sitting on his throne. One day, it happened
that a girl directed her steps towards the young tree. The girl
stbod in its shade, lovingly admiring the forest, when a boy
approached her quite suddenly. Giving sway to his passions,
he caught the hands of the girl and whirlingher round, caused
her to fall on the grassy ground. Naturally, the youngster
committed a sexual indiscretion and the girl became pregnant
and, when time was ripe, a little boy was bom. In the fashion
of her tribe, the young mother tied a swing to the branch of a
tree, keeping it moving all the time, to the delight of her child.

The song does not explain whether or not the two
arranged for a marriage, though it mightbe presumed thatthe
birth of a son is compensation enough, apart from the pleasure
derived from her pleasant occupation which consisted in keep-
ing the swing in swaying motion.

2. A big Kirani tree, laden with fi-uit, grew on the slopes of
some distant Jiill. The fruits of the Kirani tree are sweet to eat
and the young folk love to go, in groups or alone, to the sloping
hill in order to gather the fruit. So, it happened that a girl.

8S

named Dhubi, went to the tree with the intention to eat some
fruits. Whilst she was busy doing so, she noticed that she had
been followed by a boy who, after having reached the spot
where the girl was standing, made it clearly understood that
he was not exclusively interested in the sweetness of the fruits.
He caught the girl and raped her without remorse.

In this song it is stated that the consent of the girl was
probably not obtained. The very fact that young men are in the
habit of watching the movements of girls who stride alone
through the forest - ought to be known to the daringbeauty and
it is left to the audience to decide if the girl knew all about it or
if she deliberately went alone into the forest with the hope of
being seen by a male. Undecided as it is, a poignant note is
introduced into the song, exercising a strong appeal to the
Bhils who are only too prone to act in the same way as the
youngster did, though no son is born afterwards and the girls
reputation is saved by saying that 'rape' had taken place and
nobody can blame her for it.

3. Bitter complaints are launched by a youngster who
strives in vain to gain favours from a girl named Nangi. All his
entreaties prove to be futile; the girl makes it clear that she is
unable to nourish feelings of affections for him. Driven to utter
despair, the boy acquires a threatening attitude by asking the
girl how it is possible for her to smile at a certain boy Ranja and
even to have sexual intercourse with him, whilst he, the
unhappy suitor, has to remain unsatisfied and disappointed.

On the one side, the girls steadfastness is stressed, but,
as nobody sees any thing praiseworthy in it, the girl becomes
the fascinating centerpiece of the song by the admission of
certain relations with Renja, her real lover. The disappointed
suitor might be a well to-do man, though this is not enough
enducement to the girl who, like every Bhils (male or female)
listens exclusively to the voice of the heart and, by breaking
down all barriers, goes even so far that her connections (not
legalised by marriage) with her lover are permitted to be
known to every body. She acquires the reputation of being
natural and desirable, whilst the lover may boast of hours
intimate bliss. The events described firmly express the Bhils
attitude in matters of sex; one cares little in particular and
even if it comes to an open scandal matters can always easily
be arranged. Complications are only created by those who
cannot do without it and, decidedly, the Bhils do not belong to
this catofTory,

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4. A farmer who had spent many hours ploughing his
fields, neglected in his tiredness, to watch the girl Chungi who
had accompaniedhim to the fields. No wonder that the girl was
glad when she was approached by one of her boy-friends. She
did not hesitate to accept his invitation to follow him into the
forest and once hidden from sight, she became an easy prey.
The escapade, however, became known through her becoming
pregnant, though the gods smiled at her and presented her
with a son. The little lad was one of the prettiest babies ever
bom and never before had a mother with greater tenderness
kept the boy's swing in motion.

Well, the farmer is to be blamed for the accident, he
should not have taken his daughter to the field, or, if he had,
at least employed her properly, things might have taken a dif-
ferent turn. But, apparently, she knew the boy better than any-
one else and his coming was perhaps pre-arrange. Again we
see that youngsters, who intend to make mischief, often have
to hood-wink their elders who, it seems, are quite accustomed
to it.

5, All kinds of fine vegetables are planted in the garden and
the gardener can think of nothing better than to present his
sweatheart with a basket full of greens.

The theme of this song is strikingly simple and decent.
A gardener, skillful in his art, can boast of a crop of fine
vegetables and one can assume that his ability to raise such
good vegetables isknown to a good number of girls is it not very
likely that a par ticularly fair maiden rather likes to pass along
the garden's fence when on her way to the village well? She
might hesitatingly have slowed down the pace of her steps,
glancing timidly over the fence or, better, even, have made
encouraging remarks as to the quality of the crop grown and
the abilities of the young gardener in particular. Is it so
difficult for him to understand that the maiden merely pre-
tended to be interested in his vegetables? Well, to make sure,
he sends her a basket full, guessing that this friendly gesture
is bound to clarify the situation. Certainly, she must be pretty
too and, quite desirable and attractive or he would not have
parted with his vegetables at all.

6. A boy and a girl happen to be alone in the house. This
very favourable circumstance makes the boy rather bold and
it is not surprising that the girl feels rather afraid, though the
passionate feelings of the boy are not subdued by her fearful
attitude, on the contrary, he forces the girl to quieten his

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emotions in the most drastic manner. In the heat of the act, it
was not noticed that a neighbour was watching the struggle
through half- open window. This remark terrified the boy and
the girl, they tried to solve the riddle by asking each other what
is going to happen, in case the neighbour spreads the story of
what he has been.

So far as this song is concerned, the Bhils cannot claim
to have introduced a new subject. As long as the Earth rotates,
there will always be some couples who have to torture their
mind by asking. What is going to happen now?
7. This song, taken from another group of songs, has as its
theme the complaint of a woman who feels neglected by her
husband. Although the Bhils do not attach too much impor-
tance to little complaints of this kind, jealousy is at least
permitted to figure more prominently in their songs.

I am as beautiful as the flower of the Mango tree; my eyes
are radiant like a cotton flower that sways in the morning
breeze, my body is more beautiful even than the leaves of the
Niem-tree. So fresh, so clean, and so unsurpassably delightful.
But alas, my husband fails to see that I am so attractive and,
worse even, he devotes allhis attention to another woman, one
who really cannot claim to be as beautiful as I am. How do I
know what my husband thinks of her? He behaves like a white
crane and takes even to using bad language. It is is certainly
not possible that he has already forgotten that I am of good
stock. Nothing will ever change his mind and it is really better
for me to die.

The fate of the neglected beauty is quite contrary to
general practice. Certainly, a good many Bhils neglect their
wives, but as soon as a wife has the impression that her
husband's attention is diverted in another direction, she will
positively refuse to pass through all the stages of martyrdom
and sirnply make arrangements with somebody else. A second
husband is soon found and as the first husband is the only one
to be blamed for the break-down of once happy matrimonial
relations, the second husband benefits in so far as his finances
will be less taxed, in such a case.

As said before, the Bhils delight in portraying their lives
in their songs, as was demonstrated above. Many tunes de-
voted to the hunter and his experiences in forest and jungle,
others picture insignificant events occuring when going to the
bazaar.

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OffiGials and the various public servants are spoken of in
melodious form full of praise or saturated with contempt. Tax-
collectors fare worse; they are said to combine their duties with
rape and lust. Songs of this kind are full of mockery and are
nothing else than a jocously manufactured tirade against
those whose duty it is to fill the coffers of Government. The
shrewd bania is not forgotten ; his activities are too well known
among the Bhils and it is more than natural that money-lend-
ers etc, figure prominently in songs, just in order to take
innocent, though not less biting, revenge. Songs relating to the
relations of the opposite sex supply, however, the most appre-
ciated source and form of entertainment, especially on occa-
sion of communal dances or at moments when the crowds, in
festive mood, indulge into excessive intake of alcohol. Many
songs are exceedingly obscene and therefore much in favour.
They are intended to create the proper atmosphere for orgies
to follow. Such is life in the jungles, unswervingly heading to
the point.

The stories told among the Bhils are mostly a mixture of
reality and fable. Often the action is made difficult by the
introduction of mystic beings or un-animated objects, never-
theless, able to speak and to understand. Some animals, for
instance the fox and the snake, exhibit all the attributes of
cunningness and vice, though they are sometimes allowed to
make themselves useful by solving riddles and thus bring the
stories or fables to a successful end. Field and forest, jungle or
river site, in short the scenery to which the Bhils are accus-
tomed, were selected as the most suitable background, by
means of which a certain simplicity and naivity is imparted.
May the following few examples throw some light on the
foregoing introduction.

Once upon a time a man went to the jungle. It was a
lovely morning in spring; the wind blew mildly and gentle over
the country and the man strolled happily about, delightfully
gazing at flowers and trees around him. Whilst aimlessly
journeying through the thicket, he happened to come to a big
tree, from one of the branches of which a giant snake was
hanging. Although the serpent behaved quite well, the wan-
derer thought it wise to destroy the snake by settingfire to the
tree. The tree caught fire within a short time and the serpent
felt rather embarrased. In her despair she appealed to the man
to be merciful and to assist her in her attempt to leave the tree.
The man, however, being timidby nature, explained that he is

92

afraid that the snake might bite him as soon as assistance is
coming forth. The serpent hastened therefore to explain that
she never intends to do such a vile thing and in order to make
it easier for him to decide quickly, she instructed him in which
way an escape could most easily be staged. Take a long stick
and lean it against the branch on which I am resting and I shall
be able to get down without difficulty. The man did as told and
the serpent alighted. As soon as she was out of danger, she
turned againsther saviour and made it quite clear that she will
bite him now. The man protested vehemently and only saved
himself by suggesting that some body else must be asked in
order to ascertain of the snake's attitude is justified. So they
went together in search of somebody or something able to
speak justice. The path they crossed on their way was consid-
ered to be experienced in judging and the man addressed the
path as follows: Dear Sister, I have saved the life of the serpent
and now, as a bad reward for my kindness, I am threatened to
bebitten without remorse. And the path answered "During all .
the years that I am here in the jungle, I certainly saw many
strange things, but such a case as yours never happened before
and, I am afraid, I feel at loss and quite unable to tell you what
you should do". The snake and the man had thus to continue
their search and, luckily, they met a mare that was grazing
peacefully under some tree. But, alas, the mare was no wiser
than the path, and could consequently not reveal any informa-
tion that might settle the dispute. Whilst they were just
turning away after having thanked the mare for the benevo-
lent interest she had taken in their case, a fox strolled towards
the group and he too listened politely to the story. He thought-
fully rubbed his paws against his nose, meditated for a while
and then made the following utterance. "It is most difficult to
judge in. so intricate a matter. None of us, whose advice is
requested, was present when the snake was saved and the ex-
planations given are not clear enough as to the order at which
things are supposed to have happened, I therefore suggest that
we should altogether walk back to the tree where we shall
assist the serpent to regain the branch on which she was
sittingbefore the fire started the man will again lean his stick
against the branch and every phase of the escape will be re-
enacted as before. Everyone agreed. The snake was flung on
the branch of the tree and as soon as she tried to occupy her
former position all the other members of the party ran away,
leaving the snake alone in distress.

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It is interesting to note that the fox seems, all over the
world, to enjoy the reputation of being very shrewd. The fox, is
as a matter of fact, a cautious animal, and every Bhil has
indeed opportunity enough to study the creature's behaviour
when hunting. On the other hand, many a story can never to
brought to a happy end, without the introduction of some new
and unforeseen factor, and the fox apparently happens to be,
at the desired moment, always ready and prepared to save the
situation. Another fable, for instance, related that a man was
once asked by a tired crocodile to carry it to the pond. The
crocodile admitted to feel rather exhausted as a result of a long
journey ithad to undertake in family-matters. The man agreed
to assist the crocodile, carried it to a nearby tank, regretted,
however, soon to have the vicious creature. The crocodile,
disregardless of any expected gratitude, caught the man's leg
and at the very moment when it intended to pull the man into
the water, a fox happened to come to the tank in order to
quench its thirst. The struggle between man and crocodile
could therefore not escape his notice and, moreover, the fox
ofFered to take steps that might reconcile and satisfy both
adversaries. The crocodile still holding the man's leg firmly -
refused to see the point, though, after being told by the fox that
it would largely benefitby the procedure recommended by him,
the crocodile agreed and obediently closed its eyes, as re-
quested by the fox. As soon as the eyes were closed, the fox
hurriedly bit into the tail of the crocodile, which, frightened
and alarmed, released the leg of the man who, as can be
expected, ran away as quick as he could.

Various wild animals play a prominent part in the fables
of the Bhils. Some creatures, for instance the wild and fero-
cious tiger, is often represented as wise and aristocratic hero
of the jungle, on other occasions extreme silliness is attributed
to him. The contemptutions treatment, in the latter case, is
certainly based on feelings of fear and terror; knowing only too
well that the tiger is not an animal that can so easily be slain,
its ferociousness is deliberately disturbed into ridicule, out of
sheer spite and revenge. So it is told that a timid field-mouse
once came across a sleeping tiger and being sure that her
presence was not noticed by murderer of the jungle, she
started, not without mischief, to eat the tigers ears who, after
being deprived of his ears, was quite unable to listen to all the
strange sounds and warnings of the jungle. He crawled hence-
forth through the forest in a fashion entirely unbecoming to a

94

tiger and become soon the laughing stock of all the animals
living near and far.

In practical life, such a thingwill of course never happen,
but the quantity of it is enough to delight man, who know out
of experience, that it is certainly not easy to play tricks with a
tiger. Snakes, of course, are not liked by any body. The nasty
habit of attacking harmless hunters did never increase the
serpent's lack of popularity and its place, alloted to it in fables,
is decidedly not honourable.

The mute fish did not escape. A certain fable narrates of
a big fish, so wise and intelligent, that it was able to teach its
wisdom to others. The fishermen knew all about the scholarly
fish, listened often to its lectures as they became nearly as wise
as the fish. One day the fish was invited to attend a marriage
ceremony in the nearby village. This, of course, was a ruse and
a trap so cleverly laid that even the learned fish could not
detect it. The fisher-men knew well that all their attempts to
catch the big fish were again and again frustrated by the
intelligence of the fish, though there could apparently be no
harm in inviting the fish to come to the village. The fish
accepted the invitation, and as soon as they had covered a
distance far enough from the water, they caught the unsus-
pecting fish which, after some struggle, finally found its way
into the frying-pan. It is said that the wedding - festivity
became known as particularly gay and frolic. The bride, who
ate the brain of the fish, gave birth to a son.

The Bhils are very fond offish. Its flesh is considered to
be a delicacy and on certain occasions fishing parties are
arranged, attracting whole village populations.

This little story is, in itself, absolutely insignificant but
nevertheless popular. The Bhil likes to stress that he is by no
means a drowsy, unintelligent being. He knows all the little
tricks of his professional occupation and it is natural that his
skill, based on longexperience finds somehow expression in his
fables and folklore. The bulk of the popular stories are, how-
ever, so obscene that they must remain restricted amongst the
Bhils. As mentioned before, sex plays an important part in the
life of the Bhils. To be loose and fast is the rule of the day.
Certain restrictions and moral conventions prevent the aver-
age Bhil from going farther than he already does, though in
imagination, at least, the most perverse cravings are ex-
pressed in their stories, and, although it is claimed that such
perversity is merely possible within the framework of already

95

incredibly phantastic stories, it can, without hesitation, be
said that the Bhil is only too willing to do exactly what his
story-characters are supposed to do. Pathalogical inclinations,
like sexual contact with animals, figure prominently in fables
or semi-fables and a closer study of the intimate life of the Bhils
will possibly reveal if the alleged strange habits of story -
figures are also common among the population.

In matters relatingtosex,nobodydiscussesmore frankly
than the Bhil. It forms every where the main subject of
conversation, even in the presence of half grown children. The
imaginative mind of youngsters, who are on the threshold of
puberty, becomes an easy prey of those members of the commu-
nity who see great fun in it. Taboos, based on sex, do not exist;
every thing, as long as it can be carried out, will be carried out.
It is, however, difficult to decide, to what an extent the Bhils
should be blamed for it. They do not share the opinion that they
act wrongly; belief and any attempt to prohibit perversity for
instance, the pillars of their social structure would be de-
stroyed. The primitive man will, in such a case, not turn to a
substitute (below in our eyes), but will indulge in greater forms
of exces only harmful to him and his community. One has
always to bear in mind that the dictates of the jungle are bound
to be different from those of settled and civilised districts, and
it mustbe left to the inhabitants of the jungle to shape their life
according to the conditions prevailing, which means that they
can indulge freely and unrestricted, in habits that are out of
place elsewhere (or, let us say, are known elsewhere, but not
openly). The Bhils is certainly, as a matter of fact, more praise-
worthy and cleaner that the make-believe attitude of many
civilised men. Corruption of thought and action is rampant in
big cities and society ought to be declared bankrupt, unless one
resorts to a brush-up and white - wash of the worm-eaten
facade.

Hawabai and Mustafa Shah

SINDHI KITAB GHAR
KARACHI